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SERIES  XXXIM  NO.  3 

JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVERSITY  STUDIES 

IN 

Historical  and  Political  Science 

Under  the  Direction  of  the 

Departments  of  History,  Political  Economy,  and 

Political  Science 


THE  HELPER  AND  AMERICAN 
TRADE  UNIONS 


BY 


JOHN  H.  ASHWORTH,  Ph.D. 
Instructor  in  Political  Economy  in  Pennsylvania  State  College 


BALTIMORE 
THE  JOHNS  HOPKINS  PRESS 

1915 


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THE  HELPER  AND  AMERICAN  TRADE  UNIONS 


Series  xxxill  No.  3 

JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVERSITY  STUDIES 

IN 

Historical  and  Political  Science 

Under  the  Direction  of  the 

Departments  of  History,  Political  Economy,  and 

Political  Science 


THE  HELPER  AND  AMERICAN 
TRADE  UNIONS 


BY 


JOHN  H.  ASHWORTH,  Ph.D. 
Instructor  in  Political  Economy  in  Pennsylvania  State  College 


BALTIMORE 

THE  JOHNS   HOPKINS   PRESS 

1915 


Copyright  1915  by 
THE  JOHNS  HOPKINS  PRESS 


PRESS  OF 

THE  NEW  ERA  PRINTING  COMPANV 

LANCASTER,  PA. 


ReL 


CONTENTS 

Page 

Preface  vii 

Introduction   9 

Chapter      I.     The  Uses  of  the  Helper 26 

Chapter    II.     The  Hiring  and  Compensation  of  the 

Helper    67 

Chapter  III.     The  Organization  of  the  Helper   ....  78 

Chapter  IV.     The   Helper  and   Trade-Union   Policy  115 


PREFACE 

This  monograph  is  the  outgrowth  of  investigations  car- 
ried on  by  the  author  while  a  member  of  the  economic 
seminary  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  University.  The  chief 
documentary  sources  of  information  have  been  the  trade- 
union  pubHcations  in  the  Johns  Hopkins  library.  Docu- 
mentary information,  however,  has  been  supplemented  by 
personal  observation  and  by  interviews  with  leading  trade 
unionists  in  Baltimore  and  with  the  secretaries  of  a  number 
of  national  unions. 

The  author  wishes  to  express  appreciation  for  the  inval- 
uable assistance  received  from  Professor  Jacob  H.  Hol- 
lander and  Professor  George  E.  Barnett. 

J.  H.  A. 


THE  HELPER  AND  AMERICAN 
TRADE  UNIONS 


INTRODUCTION 

A  "helper,"  as  the  term  is  used  in  this  study,  is  a  person 
employed  to  help  the  skilled  journeyman  or  journeymen 
under  whose  supervision  he  works.  The  essential  marks 
of  a  helper  as  here  defined  are  two :  first,  he  is  employed 
to  promote  the  work  of  another;  second,  he  is  supervised 
in  his  work  to  some  extent  by  the  mechanic  whom  he  assists. 
The  kind  of  assistance  rendered  and  the  extent  of  the  super- 
vision exercised  vary  considerably  in  different  classes  of 
helpers.  A  helper's  assistance  to  a  journeyman  may  be  as 
remote  as  that  of  supplying  material  to  another,  or  as  im- 
mediate as  that  of  working  hand  to  hand  with  another  at  all 
times.  The  supervision  exercised  by  a  journeyman  over  a 
helper  may  extend  no  farther  than  the  giving  of  directions 
as  to  the  placing  of  material,  or  it  may  be  so  close  that  the 
helper  does  no  v/ork  for  which  he  is  not  responsible  to  the 
mechanic  who  is  directing  him. 

Distinguished  with  respect  to  the  nature  of  the  work 
done  and  the  relation  borne  to  journeymen  in  the  perform- 
ance of  work,  helpers  may  be  roughly  divided  into  three 
classes:  (i)  "remote  helpers,"  (2)  "helpers  proper,"  and 
(3)  "advanced  helpers."  All  or  none  of  these  classes  may 
be  found  in  a  single  trade. 

(i)  By  a  remote  helper  is  meant  an  assistant  who  does 
not  come  into  intimate  contact  with  journeymen  in  the  per- 
formance of  work.  He  is,  as  a  rule,  unskilled,  and  is  ordi- 
narily known  as  a  laborer.  He  does  preparatory  and  sub- 
ordinate work  which  is  necessary,  but  which  is  usually  not 
claimed  by   journeymen   as  part  of   the  trade.     In   other 

9 


lO  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [282 

words,  his  work  begins  and  ends  with  the  lines  marking  the 
jurisdiction  of  a  trade.  Such  a  helper,  on  account  of  a  close 
connection  with  journeymen  while  at  work,  must  ordinarily- 
come  under  the  supervision  of  a  journeyman.  The  hod- 
carrier,  for  example,  is  a  helper  of  this  class.  He  is  a 
laborer  who  neither  does  nor  helps  to  do  any  of  the  work 
claimed  as  bricklayers'  work.  However,  the  hod-carrier's 
work — the  carrying  of  brick  and  mortar — is  necessary  in 
order  that  the  bricklayers  may  proceed  with  their  duties. 
As  a  rule,  the  hod-carrier  is  under  the  general  supervision 
of  a  foreman,  but  he  also  receives  orders  from  the  journey- 
men whom  he  assists. 

The  characteristics  of  remote  helpers  differ  greatly  in  the 
different  trades  and  industries.  In  the  building  and  the 
metal  trades,  where  strength  and  endurance  are  required, 
this  class  of  helpers  is  composed  largely  of  mature  men. 
In  many  industries — as  the  textile  mills,  garment  factories, 
glass-bottle  establishments,  and  printing  offices — they  are  for 
the  most  part  boys,  often  spoken  of  as  "  small  help."  Not 
infrequently  it  happens  that  these  helpers  are  former  jour- 
neymen who,  on  account  of  intemperance,  an  injury,  or 
other  causes,  fail  to  secure  positions  requiring  skill  or  car- 
rying much  responsibility. 

(2)  A  helper  proper  is  one  whose  work  is  so  closely  con- 
nected with  that  of  a  journeyman  that  it  is  necessary,  or  at 
least  desirable,  that  he  be  under  the  direct  supervision  of  a 
journeyman  much  or  all  of  the  time.  This  group  of  help- 
ers may  be  subdivided  into  (a)  helpers  who  assist  mechanics 
at  work  some  of  which  cannot  be  done  by  one  man,  and  (b) 
helpers  whose  employment  is  wholly  on  account  of  the  ad- 
vantages of  a  division  of  labor  and  not  on  account  of  the  ab- 
solute necessity  of  having  two  or  more  men  cooperate  in  the 
performance  of  a  single  task. 

(a)  In  many  trades  there  is  work  which  one  man  cannot 
do  but  which  cannot  be  subdivided  so  that  part  can  be  done 
by  one  person  and  part  by  one  or  more  other  persons,  each 
being  independent   in  the   performance  of   his   particular 


283]  INTRODUCTION  I  I 

duties.  The  process  is  a  unit  and  must  be  executed  as  such. 
Each  steam  fitter,  for  instance,  must  have  an  assistant  be- 
cause he  cannot  by  himself  do  the  physical  labor  of  lifting 
and  adjusting  the  heavy  fixtures  used  in  steam  fitting.  The 
journeyman  and  his  helper  work  hand  to  hand,  the  helper 
acting  imder  the  orders  of  the  steam  fitter  at  all  times.  In 
many  cases  there  is  no  clear-cut  assignment  of  work  to 
the  helper,  what  he  does  being  left  to  the  exigency  of  the 
case  and  to  the  discretion  of  the  journeyman  whom  he 
assists. 

In  other  cases  there  is  a  well-defined  line  between  the 
work  of  the  helper  and  that  of  the  journeyman.  For  ex- 
ample, on  a  quadruple  printing  press  it  is  necessary  to  have 
about  six  men ;  one  of  them  has  charge  of  the  work,  while 
all  of  the  others  are  assistants,  commonly  known  as  press 
assistants.  Each  assistant  has  specific  work  to  do,  but  the 
press  must  be  in  charge  of  one  man.  Another  example  of 
this  type,  which  is  different  in  some  respects  from  that  of 
the  pressman's  assistant,  is  the  helper  to  the  elevator  con- 
structor. This  helper  is  a  kind  of  specialist  who  knows  a 
specific  part  of  a  complex  trade.  He  may  be  able  in  some 
measure  to  do  the  work  of  a  machinist,  an  electrical  worker, 
or  the  operator  of  a  hydraulic  press.  As  in  the  case  of 
the  printing  press,  it  is  necessary  that  one  person  have  gen- 
eral supervision  of  the  entire  work.  This  person  is  the 
journeyman  elevator  constructor,  who  is  master  of  all  parts 
of  the  trade. 

(b)  The  second  group  of  helpers  proper  has  arisen  as  a 
result  of  the  advantages  of  a  division  of  labor.  In  tile  set- 
ting, for  instance,  the  ordinary  duties  of  the  helpers  are  to 
mix  the  cement  mortar  and  carry  it  to  the  tile  setter,  to  soak 
the  tiles  when  such  a  process  is  necessary,  to  "  grout  "^  the 
tile  work  after  it  is  finished,  to  clean  the  work  off,  and  some- 
times to  cut  tile  when  pieces  are  required  to  fit  a  certain 
space.  Obviously,  all  this  work  could  be  done  by  the  tile 
setter  himself,  for  there  is  no  part  of  it  which  one  man  is 

1  That  is,  fill  the  joints. 


12  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS        [284 

physically  incapable  of  performing.  In  this  case  the  helper 
assists  a  journeyman  by  relieving  him  of  particular  parts  of 
a  trade. 

Helpers  proper  who  are  employed  primarily  to  assist  me- 
chanics at  heavy  or  complex  work  may  do  work  which  does 
not  physically  require  the  cooperation  of  two  or  more  per- 
sons. When  this  occurs,  the  above  classification  to  some 
extent  breaks  down.  For  instance,  a  boiler  maker's  helper 
was  originally  employed  to  assist  a  boiler  maker  in  heavy 
lifting  and  in  putting  together  the  parts  of  a  boiler.  Grad- 
ually this  helper  has  come  to  perform  the  simpler  parts  of 
boiler  making.  The  extent  to  which  this  has  taken  place  is 
indicated  in  an  agreement  between  the  Davenport  Locomo- 
tive Company  and  the  boiler  makers  of  that  shop.  This 
agreement  stipulates  that  "helpers'  work  shall  be  operating 
of  shears,  punches,  drill  presses,  threading  staybolts,  attend- 
ing tool  room,  heating  on  flange  fires,  tapping  out  holes  for 
staybolts  and  running  in  staybolts,  firing  and  testing  boilers 
and  all  work  helping  boiler  makers  and  boiler  makers'  ap- 
prentices in  their  various  duties."^ 

(3)  By  advanced  helper,  as  the  term  is  used  in  this  study, 
is  meant  one  who  does  a  journeyman's  work  but  under  the 
supervision  of  a  journeyman.  He  is  ordinarily  a  helper 
proper  in  transition  to  the  status  of  a  full  mechanic.  A 
helper  proper  assists  a  mechanic  by  relieving  him  of  certain 
parts  of  the  work  of  the  trade  or  by  helping  him  perform 
work  which  one  man  cannot  do,  while  an  advanced  helper 
assists  a  journeyman  on  a  particular  job,  often  doing  work 
exactly  similar  to  that  done  by  the  journeyman  himself.  An 
"  improver  "  in  tile  setting,  for  instance,  is  a  helper  proper 
who  has  been  given  an  assistant  of  his  own  and  is  doing  the 
work  of  a  journeyman,  but  is  usually  under  the  supervision 
of  a  competent  tile  setter.  In  short,  he  is  a  journeyman  on 
probation.  The  "junior"  or  improver  in  the  plumbing  and 
marble  trades  and  the  advanced  or  "  helper-apprentice  "  in 

2  Journal  of  the  Brotherhood  of  Boiler  Makers  and  Iron  Ship 
Builders,  October,   1908,  p.  726. 


285]  INTRODUCTION  I  3 

the  blacksmiths'  trade  are  similar  to  the  improver  in  tile 
setting. 

Some  advanced  helpers  are  of  a  slightly  different  type 
from  that  described  above.  The  improver  in  the  carpenters' 
trade,  the  "  handy  laborer  "  in  bricklaying,  and  the  "  handy- 
man "  in  machine  and  boiler  shops,  although  doing  journey- 
man's work  and  using  journeyman's  tools,  are  usually  con- 
fined to  certain  kinds  of  work.  The  chief  difference  be- 
tween an  advanced  helper  of  this  type  and  a  helper 
proper  whose  existence  is  due  to  the  advantages  of  a  division 
of  labor  is  that  the  former  works  at  a  higher  grade  of  work 
and  less  directly  under  the  supervision  of  journeymen  than 
does  the  latter.  Improvers,  handy-men,  and  handy-labor- 
ers do  not  always  work  under  the  supervision  of  mechanics, 
but  since  they  more  often  do,  it  seems  proper  to  include  them 
within  the  scope  of  the  term  "  helper." 

The  body  of  helpers  as  here  defined  obviously  includes  all 
auxiliary  workmen  or  assistants  connected  with  a  trade  or 
industry.  Inasmuch  as  this  use  of  the  term  is  not  in  har- 
mony with  existing  practice  in  many  trades,  it  is  necessary  to 
indicate  the  terms  employed  in  various  industries. 

In  certain  trades  the  auxiliary  workmen  are  divided  into 
two,  sometimes  three,  classes.  For  example,  in  a  machine- 
shop  a  "  laborer  "  sweeps  the  floors,  carts  material  about  the 
shop,  removes  the  finished  product,  and  performs  other  gen- 
eral work  of  like  character.  Another  group  of  workmen 
called  helpers  are  men  of  some  skill,  or  at  least  men  of  some 
experience  in  a  machine  shop.  These  helpers  work  in  closer 
contact  with  the  machinists  than  do  the  laborers.  They  get 
tools  for  the  journeymen,  oil  and  help  to  operate  machines, 
and  do  other  work  which  brings  them  under  the  direct  super- 
vision of  the  mechanic  whom  they  assist.  Still  another 
group  of  auxiliary  workmen  known  as  "  handy-men "  or 
"  specialists "  are  employed  in  machine  shops.  "  Handy- 
man "  originally  meant,  as  the  name  signifies,  one  who  could 
make  himself  useful  about  a  shop.  Sometimes  he  would 
directly  assist  a  mechanic,  at  other  times  he  would  be  en- 


14  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [286 

gaged  in  work  requiring  a  comparatively  low  degree  of  skill, 
in  which  case  he  frequently  worked  almost  independently  of 
any  mechanic.  As  the  work  in  a  machine-shop  became  more 
and  more  diversified,  the  work  of  the  handy-man  became 
more  and  more  specialized,  until  both  with  respect  to  the 
work  which  he  does  and  the  meaning  attached  to  the  term, 
the  "  handy-man  "  has  changed  to  a  "  specialist."  These 
three  classes  of  auxiliary  workmen — laborers,  helpers,  and 
handy-men — correspond  respectively  to  remote  helpers,  help- 
ers proper,  and  advanced  helpers  in  our  classification,  but 
the  first  and  the  last  of  these  are  not  included  within  the 
term  helper  as  the  machinists  use  it. 

In  boiler  making,  besides  laborers,  helpers,  and  handy- 
men, similar  to  workmen  of  the  same  names  in  the  machine 
shops,  there  is  another  class  of  helpers  known  as  "  holders- 
on."  A  holder-on  is  a  specialist  who  holds  bolts  while  a 
boiler  maker  fastens  them.  In  printing  press-rooms  there 
are  three  distinct  classes  of  helpers  proper,  namely,  "  feed- 
ers," "  feeders'  helpers,"  and  "  press  assistants."  The 
feeder,  as  the  name  signifies,  feeds  the  press ;  the  feeder's 
helper  assists  the  feeder  in  operating  the  automatic  feeder ; 
and  the  assistant  pressman  helps  the  pressman  to  care  for 
and  operate  the  press. 

An  illustration  or  two  wnll  serve  to  show  that  the  term 
helper  as  the  trade  unions  use  it  is  vague,  indefinite,  and  sub- 
ject to  frequent  change  in  meaning.  In  1910,  when  the 
United  Brotherhood  of  Teamsters  extended  its  jurisdiction 
and  changed  its  name  to  the  International  Brotherhood  of 
Teamsters,  Chauffeurs,  Stablemen  and  Helpers,  it  was  pro- 
posed that  all  garage  laborers  should  be  known  as  helpers, 
but  after  some  discussion  it  was  decided  that  they  should 
be  included  in  the  term  "  stablemen."^  In  the  convention 
of  Boiler  Makers  in  1901  an  effort  was  made  to  have  the 
term  "  handy-man "  substituted  in  the  constitution  for 
"helper."     The   only    reason    assigned    for   this    proposed 

3  Proceedings,  1910,  p.  9. 


287]  INTRODUCTION  1 5 

change  was  that  the  term  helper  caused  dissatisfaction 
among  the  journeymen.^ 

Unions  as  a  rule  do  not  consider  any  workman  a  helper 
unless  the  work  of  that  person  falls  within  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  trade.  From  the  union  standpoint,  trade  lines  sep- 
arate the  work  of  laborers  from  that  of  helpers,  but  as  these 
lines  are  more  or  less  arbitrarily  drawn  and  are  subject  to 
frequent  change,  any  attempt  to  follow  out  this  distinction 
would  prove  unsatisfactory.  The  International  Union  of 
Bricklayers  and  Masons,  for  example,  does  not  extend  its 
jurisdiction  to  the  carrying  of  brick  and  mortar,  and  conse- 
quently does  not  consider  the  hod-carriers  as  helpers.  In 
Porto  Rico,  however,  where  the  bricklayers  are  organized 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor, 
the  trade  lines  are  extended  and  the  hod-carrier  is  consid- 
ered the  bricklayers'  helper. 

A  union  often  defines  a  helper  on  the  basis  of  skill  and  the 
time  of  service  in  the  trade  rather  than  with  regard  to  the| 
nature  of  the  work  done.  In  an  agreement  between  the 
Electrical  Workers  and  their  employers  in  New  York,  a 
helper  is  defined  as  "  a  man  who  has  worked  at  the  electrical 
construction  business  more  than  two  years,  and  has  passed 
the  examination  provided  for  herein  and  has  been  admitted 
to  the  union."^ 

In  accordance  with  such  definitions,  helpers  are  often 
thought  of  less  as  assistants  than  as  those  who  are  organized 
by  the  union  under  the  name  helper ;  not  so  much  as  those 
who  do  a  certain  kind  of  work,  but  as  those  whom  the  union 
permits  to  perform  it.  In  other  words,  a  helper  is  one  who 
is  registered  by  a  union  as  a  helper,  regardless  of  the  work  he 
may  do.  This  was  impressed  upon  the  writer  when  he  was 
shown  through  a  large  locomotive  shop  by  a  machinist  who 
pointed  out  a  number  of  persons  as  helpers,  though  appar- 
ently they  were  assisting  no  one.  On  asking  for  an  explana- 
tion, it  was  learned  that  these  men  were  doing  the  work  of 

4  Proceedings,  1901,  p.  241. 

5  Annual  Report,  New  York  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  1908, 
Part  I,  p.  250. 


l6  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [288 

machinists,  but  my  guide  considered  them  helpers  because 
that  was  the  grade  under  which  the  union  classified  them. 
In  reading  labor  journals  one  is  impressed  with  the  fre- 
quency with  which  this  signification  is  given  to  the  term. 
The  following  from  the  report  of  Organizer  Cummings  of 
the  Steam  Fitters  is  typical :  "  I  would  have  liked  to  tell  him 
(Mr.  Miller)  just  what  kind  of  a  shop  he  runs — one  or  two 
steam  fitters  and  all  the  helpers  he  sees  fit  to  put  on  his 
jobs."*^  The  writer  meant  by  this  that  Mr.  Miller  was  hav- 
ing journeyman's  work  performed  by  men  regarded  by  the 
union  as  helpers. 

The  helper  must  be  differentiated  from  two  other  classes 
of  workmen  with  whom  he  is  frequently  confused.  These 
are  (i)  apprentices  and  (2)  other  subordinate  workmen. 

(i)  With  the  decay  of  the  apprentice  system  and  the  de- 
velopment of  a  helper  system  as  a  means  of  learning  a  trade, 
the  lines  of  cleavage  between  a  helper  and  an  apprentice 
have  become  obscure  in  many  trades. 

To  show  the  intricate  relation  between  helpers  and  ap- 
prentices, let  us  first  trace  the  development  of  the  helper 
system  of  learning  the  plumbers'  trade,  which  is  typical  of 
the  development  of  the  system  in  many  other  trades.  In. 
years  past  the  greater  part  of  a  plumber's  work  was  done 
in  his  shop,  where  the  material  was  brought  into  shape.  For 
the  performance  of  the  shop  work,  such  as  making  lead 
traps,  considerable  skill  was  required,  and  instruction  and 
practice  in  this  work  were  necessary  for  one  who  aspired 
to  be  an  efficient  plumber.  As  the  trade  w'as  remunerative, 
boys  willingly  apprenticed  themselves  to  the  master  plumb- 
ers and  worked  for  little  pay  apart  from  the  instruction  re- 
ceived. These  boys  were  primarily  learners  and  incidentally 
they  assisted  in  the  shops  where  they  worked. 

Gradually  a  change  took  place.  As  plumbers'  work  in- 
creased in  volume,  the  amount  of  shop  work  to  be  done  de- 
creased relatively  to  the  entire  work.  Large  manufacturing 
establishments  began  to  make,  ready  for  use,  every  article 

^  The  Steam  Fitter,  May,  1908,  p.  5. 


289]  INTRODUCTION  1 7 

needed  in  the  plumbing  trade.  Since  these  articles  were 
made  in  uniform  sizes,  plumbing  became  largely  a  matter 
of  putting  them  together  properly.  Previous  to  the  falling 
off  of  the  shop  work  the  boys  and  men  hired  to  carry  the 
tools  and  the  material  needed  on  a  job  and  to  render  such 
assistance  as  the  plumbers  might  require,  had  little  oppor- 
tunity to  become  practical  plumbers  and  were  clearly  distin- 
guished from  the  apprentices.  When  the  shop  work  largely 
disappeared,  it  became  the  chief  duty  of  the  apprentice,  as 
it  was  of  the  helper,  to  assist  plumbers  on  construction  work. 
Thus,  the  boy  employed  as  a  helper  and  the  one  under  con- 
tract to  be  taught  the  trade  were  placed  at  identically  the 
same  kind  of  work  and  received  about  the  same  amount  of 
instruction.  Not  only  did  the  apprentice  become  a  helper, 
but  also  the  helper  became  a  learner  of  the  trade.  This  was 
due  to  the  fact  that  a  helper  could  not  render  the  assistance 
required  of  him  unless  he  received  some  instruction  in  his 
work.  Besides,  he  had  the  same  opportunities  as  the  ap- 
prentice to  observe  the  work  of  the  skilled  journeymen.  On 
account  of  the  change  in  the  character  of  the  work  in  the 
plumbing  trade  the  helper  and  the  apprentice  came  to  have 
two  qualities  in  common,  namely,  both  were  assistants  and 
both  were  learners  of  the  trade. 

When  it  became  possible  for  boys  to  learn  the  plumbing 
trade  while  serving  as  helpers,  they  naturally  preferred  not 
to  enter  into  an  apprentice  contract.  Since  it  was  custo- 
mary for  each  plumber  to  demand  a  helper,'''  the  boys  who 
wished  to  learn  the  trade  felt  fairly  sure  of  an  opportunity 
to  do  so  without  being  subject  to  the  restrictions  and  the  low 
wages  imposed  by  the  customary  apprentice  contract.  In 
the  course  of  time  a  majority  of  those  learning  to  be  plumb- 
ers were  in  fact,  if  not  in  name,  helpers  and  not  apprentices. 

As  long  as  the  helpers  could  not  learn  the  trade  the  jour- 
neymen made  no  objections  to  their  employment.  In  fact, 
journeymen  often  refused  to  work  without  helpers  because 

■^  Plumbers,  Gas  and  Steam  Fitters'  Official  Journal,  December, 

1908,  p.  10. 


1 8  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [29O 

they  wished  to  be  relieved  of  rough,  unskilled  work.  It  was 
not  long,  however,  before  the  plumbers  became  convinced 
that  the  helper  system  unless  restricted  would  produce  anj 
excessive  number  of  plumbers.  The  United  Association  of 
Plumbers  became  aroused,  and  undertook  to  check  the  use 
of  helpers.  At  first  it  was  their  policy  to  distinguish  clearly 
the  apprentice  from  the  helper,  to  limit  the  number  and  the 
promotion  of  the  apprentices,  and  to  do  away  with  the 
helpers.*  When  this  policy  failed  to  accomplish  the  end  de- 
sired, it  was  abandoned,  and  a  plan  was  adopted  which  in- 
volved a  complete  reversal  of  former  tactics.  This  new 
policy  undertook  to  bring  the  helper  within  the  scope  of  the 
apprentice  regulations."  The  helper  was  declared  to  be  an 
apprentice,  and  if  the  number  of  apprentices  and  helpers  em- 
ployed by  any  firm  exceeded  the  number  of  apprentices 
allowed  the  firm  by  the  union,  it  was  considered  a  violation 
of  the  apprentice  regulations. 

Sometimes  the  Plumbers,  instead  of  using  the  terms  helper 
and  apprentice  synonymously,  include  the  helper  within  the 
term  apprentice.  John  S.  Kelly,  president  of  the  Plumbers, 
Gas,  Steam  and  Hot  Water  Fitters,  when  asked  for  how 
long  a  term  of  service  an  apprentice  must  be  taken,  replied : 
"  Four  years  as  a  helper  and  two  years  working  under  in- 
structions."" One  clause  in  an  agreement  between  the 
master  plumbers  and  the  journeymen  plumbers  of  Chicago 
in  1908  states  that  the  term  of  apprenticeship  shall  be  five 
years,  three  years  as  helper  and  two  years  with  tools. 

Confusion  in  the  use  of  the  terms  helper  and  apprentice  is 
characteristic  of  practically  all  the  skilled  trades  in  which 
helpers  have  opportunities  to  become  craftsmen  and  in  which 
the  unions  seek  to  maintain  apprentice  regulations.  The 
results  have,  however,  not  been  the  same  in  all  trades.  With 
the  Electrical  Workers  and  the  Elevator  Constructors  the 
attempt  to  distinguish  between  the  two  has  resulted  in  a 
pecuhar  use  of  the  terms.     The  constitution  of  the  Electrical 

"  Constitution,  1897,  p.  25. 
^  Proceedings,  1899,  p.  26. 
^^  Report  of  U.  S.  Industrial  Commission,  vol.  vii,  p.  966. 


291]  INTRODUCTION  19 

Workers,  Local  Union  Number  28  of  Baltimore,  provides 
that  the  period  of  apprenticeship  shall  be  two  years  and  that 
an  apprentice  shall  become  a  helper  at  the  end  of  the  second 
year."  An  agreement  between  the  Electrical  Workers, 
Local  Union  Number  3,  and  their  employers  describes  a 
helper  as  a  man  who  has  passed  an  examination  for  work 
specified  by  the  union  and  has  worked  at  the  trade  two  years, 
while  an  apprentice  is  defined  as  a  boy  registered  by  the 
union,  who  is  employed  to  do  errands,  carry  material  to  or 
on  the  job,  attend  lockers,  or  assist  journeymen  in  testing. 
This  agreement  further  states  that  apprentices  must  not  en- 
croach on  the  work  of  the  helper  or  work  with  tools.^- 

In  some  localities  the  Blacksmiths  and  the  Boiler  Makers 
have  sought  to  remedy  the  confusion  growing  out  of  the 
terms  helper  and  apprentice  by  adopting  a  new  term,  "  helper- 
apprentice."  This  term  is  applied  to  those  helpers  who  are 
recognized  as  learners  by  being  promoted  to  advanced  work. 
This  serves  to  distinguish  them,  on  the  one  hand,  from  the 
helpers  who  have  not  been  promoted,  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  from  the  regularly  indentured  apprentices.  It  is  stip- 
ulated in  an  agreement  between  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  and 
Pacific  Railway  Company  and  the  boiler  makers  of  that  road 
that  there  shall  be  two  classes  of  apprentices — regular  ap- 
prentices and  helper-apprentices.  The  former  are  to  be  be- 
tween sixteen  and  twenty-one  and  the  latter  between  twenty- 
one  and  twenty-six  years  of  age.  It  is  further  agreed  that 
helper-apprentices  must  have  previously  served  the  company 
for  two  years  as  helpers  and  shall  serve  in  the  capacity  of 
helper-apprentices  for  three  years,  while  regular  apprentices 
shall  serve  for  four  years  before  being  promoted  to  jour- 
neymanship.^^ 

■^1  Constitution,  1910,  p.  12. 

12  Annual  Report,  New  York  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  1908,  Part 
I,  p.  249.  This  distinction  between  helpers  and  apprentices  is  not 
observed  by  electrical  workers  in  all  localities.  In  some  places  the 
two  terms  are  regarded  as  synonymous.  Thus  in  an  agreement  at 
Binghamton,  New  York,  it  is  provided  that  an  apprentice  or  helper 
shall  serve  three  years  at  the  electrical  business  before  he  shall  be 
allowed  to  become  a  journeyman. 

13  Journal  of  the  Brotherhood  of  Boiler  Makers  and  Iron  Ship 
Builders,  March,  1910,  p.  167. 


20  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [292 

A  similar  agreement  between  the  Blacksmiths  and  the 
Texas  and  Pacific  Railway  Company  provides  that  helpers 
are  to  be  advanced  to  the  position  of  helper-apprentices,  and 
that  one  helper-apprentice  shall  be  allowed  in  each  shop  and 
one  additional  for  every  five  blacksmiths  employed."  In 
other  localities  the  workmen  corresponding  to  the  helper- 
apprentices  are  known  as  advanced  helpers.  For  example, 
an  agreement  between  the  blacksmiths  and  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railway  Company  provides  that  a  helper  shall  be 
allowed  to  take  a  fire  after  two  years'  service  and  shall  be 
called  an  advanced  helper.^^ 

The  tile  layers  sometimes  use  the  term  helper-apprentice 
to  designate  one  who  has  passed  through  the  lower  stages  as 
a  helper  and  is  advancing  to  the  ranks  of  the  mechanics.  An 
apprentice  system  outlined  for  tile  layers  in  Milwaukee  de- 
clares that  the  apprentice  is  to  be  known  as  the  helper-ap- 
prentice. His  duties  are  to  be  the  same  as  those  of  an  ordi- 
nary helper,  except  that  he  is  to  be  allowed  to  do  certain 
mechanical  work  and,  where  the  trade  demands  it,  journey- 
man's work  at  journeyman's  wages. ^"^ 

The  failure  on  the  part  of  labor  unions  to  distinguish  the 
helper  from  the  apprentice,  and  especially  the  tendency  of 
unions  to  class  as  apprentices  all  learners  of  a  trade,  have 
led  investigators  to  overlook  the  real  distinction  between 
the  two  classes  of  workm.en.  For  instance.  Dr.  J.  M.  Mot- 
ley, in  his  monograph,  "  Apprenticeship  in  American  Trade 
Unions,"  quotes  from  the  Iron  Molders'  Journal  as  fol- 
lows :  "  These  berkshires  were  a  peculiar  institution.  They 
were  boys  employed  by  molders  to  assist  them  at  their  work, 
nominally  as  helpers,  but  in  reality  they  were  apprentices, 
and  every  molder  had  to  use  at  least  one  of  them."^^  Dr. 
Motley  accepts  this  statement  as  correct,  and  treats  the 
berkshires  as  apprentices,  though  they  were  really  helpers. 
They  assisted  the  molder  at  his  work  and  were  under  his 

1*  Blacksmiths'  Journal,  January,  1907,  p.  23. 

1^  Ibid.,  March,   1907,  p.  20. 

1'  Tile  Layers  and  Helpers'  Journal,  April,  1907,  p.  20. 

i'^  Johns  Hopkins  University  Studies,  ser.  xxv,  nos.  11-12,  p.  22. 


293]  INTRODUCTION  21 

direct  supervision  at  all  times.  The  only  sense  in  which 
they  were  apprentices  was  that  they  were  learners  of  the 
trade. 

Dr.  Walter  E.  Weyl  and  Dr.  A.  M.  Sakolski,  in  their  study 
entitled  "  Conditions  of  Entrance  to  the  Principal  Trades," 
give  warning  that  "  the  laborer  known  as  the  '  helper '  must 
not  be  confounded  with  the  apprentice,"  and  then  proceed  to 
distinguish  the  two  groups.  "  The  latter  [apprentice] ,"  they 
say,  "  is  generally  a  youth  undergoing  a  training  to  become  a 
journeyman.  He  uses  a  journeyman's  tools  and  is  in  most 
trades  permitted  to  do  a  journeyman's  work.  The  helper, 
however,  except  in  a  very  few  trades,  receives  no  instruction 
and  is  restricted  to  certain  kinds  of  unskilled  employment. 
As  we  have  already  pointed  out,  he  is  not  allowed  to  use  the 
journeyman's  tools,  and  in  many  trades  is  not  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  journeyman's  union. "^^ 

Such  broad  generalities  evade  rather  than  solve  the  ques- 
tion involved.  This  confusion  is  doubtless  due  to  an  effort 
to  conform  to  union  usage,  which  is  not  at  all  uniform. 
Even  if  judged  from  that  standpoint,  the  above  distinctions 
are  far  from  correct.  In  the  first  place,  there  is  an  apparent 
assumption  that  helpers  are  more  advanced  in  age  than  are 
apprentices.  According  to  union  regulations,  apprentices 
are  often  taken  from  the  ranks  of  the  helpers,  and  are 
therefore  older  than  the  helpers.  The  Boiler  Makers  and 
the  Machinists  provide  that  as  many  as  fifty  per  cent  of 
the  apprentices  may  be  taken  from  the  ranks  of  the  helpers,^^ 
and  the  Printing  Pressmen  require  that  all  the  apprentices 
be  taken  from  the  assistants.-'^  In  many  other  trades  it  is 
the  policy  of  the  unions  to  have  the  apprentices  drawn  from 
those  employed  as  helpers. 

In  the  second  place,  helpers  are  not,  as  a  rule,  restricted  to 
unskilled  work,  but  are  allowed  to  pass  gradually  from  the 
position  of  an  unskilled  laborer  to  that  of  a  mechanic.     As 

18  Bulletin,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor,  no.  67,  November,  1906,  p.  768. 
""'Constitution,  1908,  art.  iii,  sec.  i;  International  Association  of 
Machinists,  Official  Circular,  no.  z^^,  I9i3- 
20  Constitution  and  By-laws,  1903,  art.  iii,  sec.  i. 


2  2  THE    HELPER    AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [294 

will  be  shown  in  a  later  chapter,  the  unions  in  a  large  ma- 
jority of  the  skilled  trades  now  permit  helpers  to  progress  in 
their  work.  In  the  third  place,  the  distinction  based  on  the 
kind  of  tools  used  is  unsatisfactory.  In  a  few  trades  like 
stone-cutting  and  bricklaying  the  helpers  are  prohibited 
from  using  tools.  There  are  other  trades,  such  as  steam- 
fitting,  where  the  helpers  do  not  have  tools  of  their  own,  but 
frequently  use  those  of  the  journeymen  with  whom  they 
work  in  order  that  they  may  render  the  assistance  required 
of  them.  Finally,  the  criterion  of  union  jurisdiction  is  in- 
valid, since  practically  all  unions  now  extend  their  jurisdic- 
tion over  both  helpers  and  apprentices. 

Dr.  Weyl  and  Dr.  Sakolski  also  state  that  "  the  essential 
distinctions  between  this  [helper]  system  of  promotion  and 
that  of  apprenticeship  are  that  no  formal  instructions  are 
given  the  'helper'  and  no  definite  period  of  training  is  re- 
quired."*^ The  same  criticism  also  applies  here.  Helpers, 
in  order  that  they  may  execute  their  work,  must  be  given 
some  instruction,  though  it  may  not  be  given  with  a  view  to 
making  the  helper  a  mechanic.  Moreover,  in  certain  trades 
where  the  unions  make  no  provision  for  apprentices — unless 
helpers  are  considered  apprentices — journeymen  are  supposed 
to  give  helpers  instruction.  Finally,  as  to  a  definite  period 
of  training,  with  the  exception  of  the  Elevator  Constructors 
and  the  Blacksmiths  not  a  single  instance  has  been  found 
where  a  union  representing  a  skilled  handicraft  has  made 
provision  for  helpers  to  become  mechanics  without  specify- 
ing the  time  they  are  to  serve  as  helpers.  A  typical  case  is 
the  requirement  of  the  Steam  Fitters  that  "Helpers  trans- 
f  ering  to  a  Fitters  local  branch  will  be  required  to  show  that 
they  have  worked  at  least  five  years  at  the  trade. "-- 

Since  all  these  distinctions  are  inadequate,  resort  to 
definition  is  again  necessary  in  order  to  obtain  our  bearings 
for  future  discussion.  A  helper  has  been  described  for  guid- 
ance in  this  study  as  any  person  employed  to  help  the  skilled 
journeyman   or   journeymen   under   whose   supervision   he 

21  Bulletin,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor,  no.  67,  November,  1906,  p.  712. 

22  Constitution,  1908,  sec.  39. 


295]  INTRODUCTION  23 

works.  On  the  other  hand,  an  apprentice  is  one  who,  by 
promise,  indenture,  or  covenant,  for  a  specified  time,  is  being 
taught  the  trade  by  a  master  of  the  trade  or  some  one  in  his 
employ.  The  only  essential  distinction  between  the  two 
classes  according  to  these  definitions  lies  in  the  purpose  of 
employment.  The  helper,  though  he  may  be  a  learner  of  a 
trade,  is  primarily  employed  because  he  supplies  an  economic 
need,  and  in  fixing  his  wages  nothing  is  deducted  for  in- 
struction given.  On  the  other  hand,  an  apprentice  may 
assist  a  journeyman,  but  the  primary  purpose  for  which  he  is 
engaged  is  that  he  may  be  taught  the  trade,  though  he  may 
incidentally  supply  an  economic  need. 

(2)  In  large  manufacturing  establishments,  owing  to  the 
minute  division  of  labor,  there  are  many  occupations,  and 
consequently  many  classes  of  journeymen,  some  of  whom 
are  subordinate  in  rank  to  others.  It  now  remains  to  dis- 
tinguish a  subordinate  workman  who  is  a  helper  from  one 
who  is  not  a  helper.  Dr.  Weyl  and  Dr.  Sakolski  in  the 
study  previously  referred  to  say  :  "  Progression  within  a  trade 
permits  a  boy  to  move  from  the  simpler  to  the  more  complex 
operations  at  a  rate  commensurate  with  his  diligence  and 
dexterity,  thus  giving  those  who  have  extraordinary  abil- 
ity or  who  apply  themselves  earnestly  to  their  work  an  op- 
portunity to  pass  rapidly  through  the  various  stages  of  ap- 
prenticeship. Consequently  the  so-called  '  helper  system ' 
of  entrance  to  a  trade,  as  we  shall  explain  later,  is  more 
adapted  to  modern  conditions  than  the  apprenticeship  sys- 
tem. By  the  '  helper  system '  is  meant  the  process  of  *  mov- 
ing up '  the  person  desiring  to  become  a  proficient  mechanic 
in  a  trade  or  occupation.  The  '  helper '  as  a  beginner  does 
the  simpler  kinds  of  work,  but  as  he  gains  experience  he 
gradually  acquires  sufficient  application  and  proficiency  to 
enable  him  to  work  upon  the  more  complex  processes  of  the 
craft."^^ 

Evidently  the  writers  of  the  above  have  failed  to  discern 
one  of  the  essential  marks  of  a  helper,  which  is  his  subjec- 
ts Bulletin,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor,  no.  67,  November,  1906,  p.  712. 


24  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS        [296 

tion,  to  some  extent,  to  the  authority  of  a  fellow-workman. 
Since  certain  industries  are  composed  of  several  branches 
or  trades  wherein  are  many  laborers  who  are  subordinate 
in  rank  to  other  workmen,  but  who  are  not  in  any  way  under 
their  supervision  and  who  are  gradually  promoted  to  higher 
positions,  it  is  obviously  incorrect,  or  at  least  misleading,  to 
term  the  helper  system  a  "  moving  up  "  process. 

The  distinction  between  a  helper  and  a  workman  who 
progresses  from  one  of  the  lower  to  one  of  the  higher  trades 
of  an  industry  composed  of  several  branches  or  trades  can 
be  best  shown  by  a  comparison  of  these  two  classes  of  work- 
men as  they  appear  in  two  different  trades.  In  the  pottery 
industry  a  "jiggerman,"  for  instance,  contracts  to  do  work 
at  so  much  a  dozen  pieces.  Instead  of  doing  all  the  work  of 
making  the  finished  product  himself,  he  operates  a  jigger — 
a  machine  for  shaping  and  pressing  the  articles  manufac- 
tured. A  "batter-out"  cuts  off  the  clay,  flattens  it,  and 
places  it  on  the  mold  so  that  the  jiggerman  can  proceed  with 
his  work.  A  "  mold-runner "  takes  the  molds  containing 
the  green  ware  from  the  jiggerman  and  carries  them  to  the 
dry  room,  and  later,  after  removing  the  ware,  he  brings  the 
molds  to  the  batter-out  for  use  again.  These  subordinatei 
workmen,  the  batter-out  and  the  mold-runner,  are  helpers 
to  the  jiggerman,  for  they  assist  him  at  work  considered 
as  a  unit,  are  under  his  supervision,  and  are  responsible  to 
him  for  the  proper  performance  of  their  respective  duties. 

In  the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes  the  different  proc- 
esses are  not  considered  a  unit.  Piece  work  is  done,  but  by 
the  piece  is  meant  the  performance  of  a  single  operation 
rather  than  the  production  of  a  completed  article.  All 
workmen  are  hired  by  the  firm  and  are  responsible  in  no 
way  one  to  another.  Cutting,  fitting  and  shaping,  finishing 
and  treeing  are  processes  independent  of  each  other.  A 
person  engaged  in  one  of  these  operations  is  in  no  sense  a 
helper  to  one  performing  a  different  operation.  In  both  the 
pottery  and  the  boot  and  shoe  industry  there  is  a  moving  up 
of  the  brightest  and  most  capable  workmen.  In  one  case 
those  moved  up  are  helpers,  in  the  other  case  they  are  not. 


297]  INTRODUCTION  2$ 

The  policies  of  organized  artisans  with  reference  to  help- 
ers vary  widely  according  to  the  different  conditions  in  the 
different  trades  and  according  to  the  particular  class  of 
helpers  under  consideration.  For  convenience  and  clearness 
in  presentation,  union  policies  and  questions  connected  there- 
with will  be  discussed  in  separate  chapters  under  the  fol- 
lowing heads  :  (i)  the  uses  of  the  helper;  (2)  the  hiring  and 
compensation  of  the  helper;  (3)  the  organization  of  the 
helper;  (4)  the  helper  and  trade-union  policy. 


CHAPTER  I 

The  Uses  of  the  Helper 

The  remote  helper,  as  defined  above,  ordinarily  receives 
little  attention  from  the  unions  representing  the  more 
skilled  trades,  with  respect  either  to  employment  or  pro- 
motion. This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  unions  and  the  em- 
ployers are  in  agreement  as  to  the  functions  of  this  partic- 
ular class  of  helpers.  The  unions  favor  their  employment 
because  it  relieves  the  mechanic  of  vmskilled  and  ofttimes 
arduous  labor  without  working  any  immediate  harm  to  the 
union.  The  employers  wnsh  to  use  these  helpers  for  tihe 
very  simple  reason  that  it  is  more  economical  to  have  low- 
grade  work  performed  by  a  cheap  class  of  workmen  than 
by  high-priced  mechanics.  Especially  is  this  true  of  those 
trades  in  which  the  mechanic  by  working  alone  would  lose 
much  time  in  changing  from  one  kind  of  work  to  another,  or 
would  cause  expensive  machinery  to  stand  idle.  In  fact, 
by  tacit  consent  of  the  unions  and  the  employers  the  use  of 
the  remote  helpers  has  been  so  regulated  that  there  has  been 
little  necessity  for  specific  union  rules.  For  example,  the 
hod-carrier  is  such  a  well-established  factor  in  supplying 
the  bricklayer  with  material,  and  so  seldom  shows  any  dis- 
position to  become  a  bricklayer,  that  the  question  concern- 
ing his  employment  or  non-employment  does  not  even  arise. 
The  bricklayer  would  not  for  a  moment  think  of  carrying 
his  own  brick  and  mortar,  nor  would  the  contractor  think  of 
allowing  him  to  do  so.  The  rarity  of  the  instances  in 
which  this  group  of  workmen  are  referred  to  in  union 
conventions  and  in  labor  periodicals  attests  their  insignifi- 
cance as  a  union  problem. 

However,  in  a  few  trades  where  there  is  a  tendency  for  the 
remote  helper  to  encroach  upon  the  w^ork  of  the  journeymen 

26 


299]  THE    USES   OF   THE    HELPER  2/ 

there  is  union  opposition  to  his  employment.  Thus  in  New 
York  City,  for  a  period  prior  to  the  year  1903,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  there  had  been  so  much  trouble  over  helpers  of  all 
classes,  the  plumbers'  union  insisted  that  journeymen  plumb- 
ers should  carry  all  fixtures  to  their  place  of  erection  regard- 
less of  the  number  of  floors  such  fixtures  had  to  be  carried.^ 
It  has  been  the  policy  of  the  United  Brotherhood  of  Car- 
penters and  Joiners  to  minimize  the  number  of  laborers  on 
any  job.  This  is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  carpenter, 
in  many  instances,  can  better  select  the  material  which  hq 
needs  for  a  specific  purpose.  The  main  reason,  no  doubt,  is 
that  the  use  of  helpers  tends  to  develop  "  saw  and  hammer 
carpenters,"  whose  presence  in  large  numbers  decreases  the 
demand  for  skilled  carpenters  and  is  a  source  of  no  little! 
trouble  to  the  union. 

The  explanation  as  to  why  the  remote  helper  is  more  likely 
to  encroach  upon  the  work  of  the  carpenter  than  upon  the 
work  of  the  bricklayer  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  duties  of  the 
carpenter  and  the  carpenter's  laborers  are  more  diversified 
than  are  the  duties  of  the  bricklayer  and  the  hod-carrier. 
Where  the  work  of  this  class  of  helpers,  as  well  as  the  work 
of  the  mechanic,  is  specific  there  is  less  danger  that  such 
helpers  will  make  inroads  upon  the  work  of  the'  craftsman 
than  there  is  in  trades  where  the  duties  of  each  class  cannot 
be  so  definitely  outlined. 

Some  unions  which  represent  an  industry  rather  than  a 
trade  embrace  within  their  ranks  all  the  workmen  of  the 
industry,  both  skilled  and  unskilled.  In  such  cases  the  re- 
mote helper,  while  a  member  having  equal  rights  and  priv- 
ileges with  more  advanced  workmen,  is  not  a  factor  of  spe- 
cial concern.  Thus,  the  general  help  about  a  mine,  a 
carriage  and  wagon  factory,  and  many  other  similar  estab- 
lishments, while  numerous,  does  not  figure  prominently  as 
a  distinct  group  of  workmen  which  calls  for  special  union 
regulation. 

Union  policies  with  reference  to  the  employment  and  the 

1  Annual  Report,  New  York  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  1908, 
Part  I,  p.  262. 


28  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS        [3OO 

promotion  of  the  helpers  proper^  are  far  from  uniform  in; 
the  different  trades.  This  lack  of  uniformity  is  due,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  remote  helper,  to  the  fact  that  the  employ- 
ment of  helpers  is  more  inimical  to  the  welfare  of  the  jour- 
neymen in  some  trades  than  in  others.  Unions  may  be  di- 
vided into  three  general  classes :  ( i )  unions  which  demand 
the  employment  of  helpers;  (2)  unions  which  are  practically 
indift"erent  as  to  the  employment  and  promotion  of  helpers, 
and  leave  the  matter  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  employers ; 
and  (3)  unions  which  recognize  evils  in  the  helper  system, 
and  either  try  to  abolish  it  or  place  strict  limitations  upon 
the  employment  and  activities  of  helpers. 

(i)  In  a  few  trades  where  the  nature  of  the  work  is  such 
that  helpers  lighten  materially  the  physical  duties  of  jour- 
neymen without  threatening  positions  or  wages,  the  employ- 
ment of  helpers  is  not  only  encouraged,  but  is  often  de- 
manded by  the  unions.  For  example,  a  teamster  has  much 
harder  work  to  perform  when  working  alone  than  when 
he  is  supplied  with  a  helper  who,  under  his  direction,  does 
a  large  part  of  the  loading,  unloading,  and  carrying  of  heavy 
material,  and  performs  other  manual  drudgery.  The  driver 
of  an  ice  wagon  keeps  the  accounts  with  his  customers  and 
attends  to  all  other  business  matters  connected  immediately 
with  the  distribution  of  ice.  In  short,  he  is  a  business  go- 
between  for  the  employer  and  the  customers.  In  addition 
to  the  driving  of  the  team,  the  driver  also  does  other  man- 
ual labor,  such  as  the  blocking  out  of  the  ice,  but  the 
carrying  of  the  ice  from  the  wagon  to  the  customers  is 
usually  done  by  the  helper.  This  helper,  while  assisting  the 
driver,  readily  learns  traffic  rules,  location  of  streets,  and  the 
names  of  customers.  Consequently,  if  his  personal  char- 
acteristics and  his  business  and  educational  qualifications 
are  suitable,  he  is  soon  capable  of  becoming  a  driver. 

Two  facts,  however,  keep  the  teamster's  helper  from  be- 
ing regarded  as  a  menace  by  the  driver.  In  the  first  place, 
there  are  many  other  persons  besides  helpers  who  could 

2  In  the  remainder  of  this  study  the  term  helper  is  used  in  the 
sense  of  helper  proper. 


30 1  ]  THE    USES    OF   THE    HELPER  29 

readily  take  charge  of  teams  if  there  should  be  a  disagree- 
ment between  an  employer  and  his  drivers.  In  the  second 
place,  many  helpers  are  negroes  or  illiterate  white  men, 
whose  lack  of  qualifications  keeps  them  from  becoming 
teamsters.  Naturally,  then,  the  teamsters  desire  helpers, 
for  by  using  them  they  have  much  to  gain  and  little  to  lose. 
Because  of  the  great  diversity  in  the  number  of  helpers 
needed  by  the  teamsters  connected  wdtli  different  industries, 
the  national  union  has  no  rule  as  to  the  number  of  helpers 
which  shall  be  furnished.  It  is  the  policy  of  local  unions  to 
demand  helpers  in  sufficient  numbers  that  the  drivers  may 
not  be  burdened  with  excessive  physical  labors.  Moreover, 
as  already  indicated,  the  Teamsters,  while  favoring  the  pro- 
motion of  helpers  to  fill  vacancies  in  the  ranks  of  the  drivers, 
do  not  maintain  any  definite  policy  as  to  this,  the  matter  of 
promotion  being  left  entirely  to  the  employers. 

In  certain  industries  where  many  grades  of  workmen  are 
employed,  and  w^here  anything  approaching  an  apprentice 
system  would  be  impracticable,  the  unions  favor  the  em- 
ployment and  the  promotion  of  helpers.  For  instance,  in 
certain  branches  of  the  iron  and  steel  industry  the  men  work 
in  teams  composed  of  a  definite  number  of  workmen  of 
whom  the  "  underhands  "  are  helpers.^  In  addition  to  these 
regular  helpers,  the  union  often  demands  that  extra  help  be 
furnished  for  work  which  is  especially  heavy.  Thus,  Local 
Lodge  Number  84  of  the  Amalgamated  Association  of  Iron, 
Steel  and  Tin  Workers  demanded  that  "help  be  given  to 
heaters  and  catchers  on  all  piles  weighing  160  lbs.  and  up- 
ward."* Similarly,  Local  Union  Number  13  asked  that 
"  when  working  blooms  or  piles  weighing  275  lbs.  and  over, 
on  muck  mills,  the  firm  shall  furnish  extra  help  for  hooking 
and  straightening."^  It  is  the  desire  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Iron,  Steel  and  Tin  Workers  that  helpers  be  promoted  in 
regular  order  according  to  time  of  service,  provided  the 

3  Proceedings,  Amalgamated  Association  of  Iron,  Steel  and  Tin 
Workers,   1877,   p.  30. 
*  Program,  1889,  p.  17. 
5  Ibid.,  p.  20. 


30  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS        [3O2 

skill  and  capabilities  of  those  longest  in  service  justify  such 
promotion.  However,  no  definite  stand  has  been  taken 
by  the  association  on  the  question  of  promotions  since  the 
early  days  of  the  union.  Advancement  of  workmen  is  for 
the  most  part  left  to  the  employers.  The  work  of  the 
helper  is.  when  possible,  made  very  definite,  but  this  is  not 
done  to  hamper  in  any  way  his  opportunities  to  secure  a 
higher  position,  but  rather  to  make  all  work  more  sys- 
tematic, and  thus  avoid  confusion  and  misunderstandings." 
It  is  the  common  experience  that  helpers  are  a  source  of 
trouble  in  unions  which  seek  to  enforce  an  apprentice  sys- 
tem. This  is  because  a  helper  proper  w^ho  works  in  close 
contact  with  a  mechanic  learns  the  work  of  the  one  whom 
he  assists  and  thus  comes  into  conflict  with  the  apprentice 
regulations.  Consequently  such  unions  are  more  or  less 
hostile  to  the  unlimited  employment  of  helpers.  There  are, 
however,  some  exceptions.  For  instance,  in  the  blowing  of 
glass  bottles  it  is  understood  that  blowers  shall  be  supplied 
with  a  "  mold  boy  "  and  a  "  cleaner-off ."  The  mold  boy 
operates  the  molds  into  which  the  glass  is  blown,  and  the 
cleaner-oflf  removes  the  particles  of  glass  that  adhere  to  the 
blower's  rod.  The  intimate  relation  of  these  helpers  to  the 
blowers  does  not  give  them  any  considerable  insight  into  the 
art  of  glass-bottle  blowing,  because  the  blowing  process 
requires  muscular  movements  which  are  invisible  and  con- 
sequently can  be  learned  only  by  actually  doing  the  work. 
The  chasm  between  the  blower  and  the  helper  is  so  broad 
that  the  helper  cannot  cross  it  at  a  single  leap,  nor  can  the 
process  of  blowing  be  divided  so  as  to  afford  stepping- 

*  Thus  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Fifteenth  Convention,  p.  2974, 
the  work  of  the  melter's  helpers  is  outlined  as  follows:  "The 
first  helper  shall  help  charge,  make  bottoms,  clean  and  sharpen  bars, 
help  dig  out  tapping  hole,  tend  gas  and  reverse  furnace  as  often 
as  directed  by  melter.  First  helper  shall  assist  second  helper  at  the 
top  hole  when  closing. 

"  The  second  helper  shall  bring  in  ore,  help  charge,  help  dig 
out  top  hole,  clean  and  close  tapping  hole,  bring  in  and  properly 
prepare  ferro  manganese,  and  bring  in  limestone,  clean  and  sharpen 
bars  and  see  that  furnace  tools  are  taken  care  of.  He  shall  take 
any  ore  and  manganese  left  from  heat  back  to  their  bins,  also 
keep  the  charging  floor  swept  clean  around  middle  front  door." 


303]  THE    USES    OF   THE    HELPER  3 1 

stones  on  which  he  can  cross.  Accordingly,  the  bottle 
blowers  do  not  oppose  the  use  of  helpers,  nor  do  they,  as  a 
rule,  lay  down  specific  regulations  as  to  the  work  of  the 
helper.  Doubtless  another  reason  for  the  attitude  of  the 
bottle  blowers  with  respect  to  their  helpers  is  the  fact  that 
they  work  by  the  piece.  If  they  themselves  should  do  all 
the  low-grade  work,  such  as  operating  the  molds  and  clean- 
ing the  pipes,  it  would  tend  to  decrease  their  earnings.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  maintain,  for  the  entire  process  of 
making  bottles,  a  standard  rate  as  high  proportionally  as  is 
maintained  for  the  skilled  process  of  blowing. 

Just  as  it  is  to  the  interest  of  the  blowers  to  have  helpers, 
so  it  is  to  the  interest  of  the  employers,  as  long  as  blowers 
are  plentiful  and  the  standard  rate  is  maintained,  not  to  put 
on  blowers  who  are  inexperienced,  for  owing  to  the  slow- 
ness of  an  unskilled  blower  and  to  the  fact  that  he  turns  out 
many  faulty  bottles,  the  employer,  by  putting  on  his  helpers 
as  blowers  at  the  standard  rate,  would  get  smaller  returns 
for  the  wages  paid  to  such  helpers  working  as  blowers. 
This  is  because  the  helpers  as  well  as  the  blowers  would 
waste  time  in  making  many  worthless  bottles.  Since  a 
helper's  pace  is  set  by  the  blower  whom  he  assists,  it  is  to 
an  employer's  interest  to  use  the  best  blowers  obtainable. 
Consequently,  although  the  blowers  do  not  allow  the  promo- 
tion of  any  helpers  other  than  those  who  become  regular 
apprentices,  no  difficulty  is  experienced  in  maintaining  the 
rule. 

(2)  The  industries  represented  by  the  unions  which  are 
comparatively  indifferent  to  the  employment  and  the  promo- 
tion of  helpers  include  industries  in  which  many  grades  of 
laborers  are  employed.  In  such  industries,  on  account  of 
the  multiplicity  of  occupations  and  the  constant  change 
brought  about  by  the  introduction  of  new  machinery,  oc- 
cupational lines  are  not  tightly  drawn,  and  the  unions  give 
their  attention  to  other  issues,  leaving  largely  to  the  em- 
ployers all  questions  pertaining  to  the  division  of  work  and 
the  employment  and  promotion  of  workmen.    Consequently, 


32  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [3O4 

though  helpers  are  employed,  no  friction  is  generated  there- 
by, and  their  existence  is  scarcely  recognized  in  the  union 
journals  and  convention  proceedings.  For  example,  the 
Western  Federation  of  Miners  makes  eligible  for  member- 
ship "  all  persons  working  in  and  around  the  mines,  mills 
and  smelters.  .  .  ."''  In  this  list  of  workmen  are  many 
classes  of  helpers,  such  as  trackman's  helper,  blacksmith's 
helper,  and  smelter's  helper.  Yet  from  reading  the  con- 
stitution of  this  union,  one  would  not  know  of  their 
existence. 

(3)  The  unions  in  which  the  questions  relating  to  the 
employment  and  activities  of  helpers  have  been  of  the 
greatest  concern  and  in  which  there  has  been  more  or  less 
action  designed  either  to  abolish  the  system  or  to  restrict 
the  number  and  advancement  of  helpers  are  the  following: 
Blacksmiths,  Boiler  Makers,  Elevator  Constructors,  Elec- 
trical Workers,  some  branches  of  the  Glass  Workers,  the 
Iron  Molders,  Machinists,  Printing  Pressmen,  Plumbers, 
Potters,  Sheet  Metal  Workers,  Steam  Fitters,  and  Tile 
Layers.  Before  taking  up  the  specific  policies  of  these 
unions  it  will  be  well  to  consider  from  the  union  standpoint 
some  of  the  more  characteristic  evils  growing  out  of  the  use 
of  helpers.  The  chief  objections  to  the  existence  of  a 
helper  class  in  these  trades  may  be  summed  up  in  a  single 
sentence:  Helpers  are  conducive  to  the  disintegration  and 
the  overcrowding  of  a  trade. 

In  the  first  place,  the  presence  of  a  helper  class  in  a  trade 
produces  or  accelerates  trade  disintegration.  It  has  been 
the  policy  of  a  majority  of  the  unions  enumerated  above 
to  hold  their  respective  trades  intact,  and  to  oppose  any 
grading  of  work  or  workmen.  The  employment  of  helpers 
is  not  favorable  to  this  policy.  The  introduction  of  ma- 
chinery and  of  machine-made  articles  has  been  the  great 
factor  in  destroying  the  unity  of  trades,  but  the  presence  of 
helpers  has  made  possible  a  grading  of  workmen.  When  a 
division  of  work  is  introduced,  and  there  is  a  class  of  men 

'^  Constitution,  art.  i,  sec.  i. 


305]  THE    USES    OF   THE    HELPER  33 

competent  to  take  over  the  less  skilled  parts  of  it,  the  em- 
ployers will  naturally  favor  such  a  division.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  there  are  no  men  in  the  shop,  and  especially  if  there 
are  none  connected  with  the  trade  except  full-fledged  me- 
chanics and  a  limited  number  of  apprentices,  it  is  probable 
that  the  union  will  be  able  to  enforce  its  demand  that  the 
trade  shall  be  held  intact,  or  at  least  that  all  the  work  shall 
be  done  by  those  recognized  by  the  union  as  full  mechanics 
or  as  apprentices.  The  helper  proper  and  the  advanced 
helper  would  be  in  a  good  position  to  step  in  and  take  work 
which  the  mechanics  claim  should  be  done  by  mechanics 
only. 

There  is  this  same  tendency,  so  the  unions  claim,  for 
helpers  to  encroach  upon  the  rights  of  journeymen  where 
the  work  is  made  up  of  jobs  scattered  here  and  there  which 
require  varying  degrees  of  skill.  If  there  is  a  job  of  work 
which  a  helper  can  do,  a  helper  rather  than  a  mechanic  is 
sent  to  do  it.  Such  a  policy,  if  unrestricted,  gradually  de- 
stroys the  unity  of  a  trade.  From  many  sources  come 
complaints  that  this  infringement  upon  the  rights  of  the 
journeymen  is  going  on.  The  Blacksmiths,  the  Boiler 
Makers,  the  Machinists,  and  the  Plumbers  have  had  griev- 
ances of  this  kind.  President  Kelly  of  the  International 
Association  of  Plumbers,  Gas  and  Steam  Fitters  has  de- 
clared that  contractors  send  jobbers  out  when  they  get 
knowledge  enough  to  do  the  work.  While  they  could  not 
lay  out  systems,  they  can  put  in  closets  ;  and  while  employers 
pay  them  at  the  rate  of  six  dollars  a  week,  they  charge  the 
customers  as  much  for  these  men  as  though  they  had  worked 
fifteen  or  twenty  years  at  the  business.® 

The  unions  contend  that  trade  disintegration  is  respon- 
sible for  the  production  of  poor  mechanics,  or,  at  least,  of 
workmen  who  can  work  at  only  certain  parts  of  the  trade. 
The  baneful  effects  of  the  helper  system  in  this  respect  are 
strongly  set  forth  in  the  report  of  Organizer  Burke  to  the 

8  Report  of  U.  S.  Industrial  Commission,  vol.  vii,  pp.  970-971. 
3 


34  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [306 

Plumbers'  Convention  in  1908.  Mr.  Burke  said  that  of 
about  four  thousand  men  in  Philadelphia  engaged  in  the 
plumbing  and  pipe-htting  industry,  only  about  twenty-five 
per  cent  were  capable  of  qualifying  for  admission  to  the 
union.  ]\Iany  of  them,  particularly  those  about  shipyards 
and  locomotive  works,  were  handy-men,  who  could  do  one 
class  of  work  only.  Many  others  worked  on  hydrants  and 
did  street  work,  but  were  not  skilled  workmen.^  In  a 
similar  report  of  the  same  year  he  ascribed  like  conditions 
in  Harrisburg  and  other  places  to  the  helper  system.^" 

It  is  further  contended  by  union  journeymen  that  the  use 
of  helpers  in  a  trade  produces  a  number  of  poorly  trained 
mechanics  far  in  excess  of  the  demands  of  the  trade.  If 
each  mechanic  in  a  trade  works  with  a  helper,  and  if  each 
helper  becomes,  as  he  will  in  most  instances,  a  poor  me- 
chanic, the  result  is  extremely  annoying  to  those  having  at 
heart  the  welfare  of  their  craft.  The  journeymen  tend  to 
increase  in  a  ratio  exceeding  the  needs  of  the  trade.  Un- 
employment, low  wages,  and  a  depressed  trade  class  are  the 
pernicious  results  of  such  a  system.  In  many  of  the  skilled 
trades  this  is  a  stock  argument  against  the  unlimited  use  of 
helpers.  In  fact,  scarcely  an  article  treating  this  sub- 
ject can  be  found  in  any  labor  journal  wherein  the  warn- 
ing does  not  appear  that  the  employment  of  helpers,  if  unre- 
stricted by  the  unions,  will  inevitably  produce  a  surplus  of 
workmen  and  thus  enable  the  employers  to  break  down  the 
union  regulations. 

As  can  be  readily  seen,  these  two  evils  growing  out  of  the 
presence  of  a  helper  class  react  upon  each  other.  Trade 
disintegration  creates  a  demand  for  more  helpers  and  pro- 
vides a  way  for  them  to  become  journeymen,  thus  producing 
a  surplus.  Similarly,  a  surplus  of  journeymen,  especially  of 
unskilled  ones,  materially  aids  the  employers  in  any  effort 
to  divide  work  and  workmen  into  classes,  perhaps  largely 
independent  of  each  other.     Formerly,  to  be  a  boiler  maker. 


»  Plumbers,  Gas  and  Steam  Fitters'  Journal,  June,  1908   p   8 
1"  Ibid.,  December,  1908,  p.  10. 


307]  THE    USES    OF   THE    HELPER  35 

a  blacksmith,  or  a  machinist  meant  a  definite  thing ;  but  now, 
to  be  classed  as  a  member  of  any  one  of  these  trades  may 
mean  being  engaged  at  any  one  of  many  occupations  into 
which  each  of  these  trades  is  divided.  For  instance,  nearly 
a  page  in  the  constitution  of  the  Boiler  Makers  is  devoted 
to  an  enumeration  of  the  work  falling  within  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  Boiler  Makers,^^  yet  it  is  a  significant  fact  that  a 
boiler  maker  usually  devotes  his  time  to  one,  or  at  least  to 
a  very  few,  of  these  enumerated  occupations. 

Even  if  there  were  in  ordinary  times  no  desire  on  the 
part  of  the  employers  either  to  promote  helpers  or  to  have 
them  undertake  work  claimed  by  mechanics,  their  presence 
at  certain  seasons  is  likely  to  prove  a  menace  to  the  welfare 
of  the  journeymen.  In  times  both  of  slack  trade  and  of 
trouble  with  employers  the  substitution  of  helpers  for  me- 
chanics is  a  standard  grievance.  "  When  the  times  get 
slack,"  said  the  president  of  the  United  Plumbers,  "they 
[the  employers]  are  laying  ofif  the  journeymen  and  keeping 
the  boys."^^  Instances  where  helpers  took  the  place  of 
journeymen  during  strikes  are  numerous.  For  example, 
when  Local  Union  Number  24  of  the  International  Associa- 
tion of  Marble  Workers  went  on  strike  in  1907,  the  places 
were  taken  by  the  helpers,^^  even  though  these  helpers  were 
members  of  the  international  association.  The  desire  of 
helpers  to  do  advanced  work  when  an  opportunity  presents 
itself  is  hard  to  overcome,  and  this  makes  it  more  difficult 
for  the  mechanics  to  enforce  their  demands. 

Two  general  policies  have  been  followed  by  organized 
journeymen  in  their  endeavors  either  to  mitigate  or  to 
eradicate  the  evils  discussed  above.  These  are  (i)  the  re- 
striction of  the  helper,  and  (2)  the  abolition  of  the  helper. 

(i)  Various  regulations  designed  to  restrict  the  helper 
have  been  tried  either  by  different  unions  or  by  single  unions 
at  different  times.  For  our  purpose,  such  restrictive  poli- 
cies may  be  classified  as  (a)   absolute  and  (b)  modified. 

1^  Subordinate  Lodge  Constitution,  1912,  art.  iii,  sec.  3. 

12  Report  of  U.  S.  Industrial  Commission,  vol.  vii,  pp.  970-971. 

13  The  Marble  Worker,  April,  1907,  p.  20. 


36  THE    HELPER   AND    AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [308 

By  the  former  is  meant  the  circumscribing  of  the  work  of 
the  helper  within  certain  bounds  beyond  which  he  is  never 
to  go  under  any  circumstances.  By  the  latter  is  meant  the 
policy  of  allowing  helpers  to  be  advanced  in  their  work 
according  to  certain  clearly  defined  rules  or  regulations. 
These  two  policies  will  now  be  taken  up  in  order. 

(a)  In  many  of  the  older  trades,  in  which  for  generations 
well-established  apprenticeship  systems  existed  and  appren- 
tice regulations  attained  such  sanctity  in  the  eyes  of  the 
journeymen  that  to  violate  them  was  an  odious  act,  the 
policy  of  absolute  restriction  characterized  the  first  efforts 
of  the  unions  in  their  endeavors  to  check  the  encroachment 
of  the  helpers.  The  idea  seemed  to  be  to  preserve  the  ap- 
prentice rules  in  their  original  purity.  If  helpers  were  to 
be  allowed  at  all,  it  must  be  on  condition  that  they  remain 
continuously  as  helpers  at  work  known  as  helpers'  work. 
Prominent  among  the  unions  which  have  tried  for  longer  or 
shorter  periods  to  maintain  this  policy  are  the  Blacksmiths, 
Boiler  Makers,  Iron  Holders,  Machinists,  Marble  Workers, 
Plumbers,  Sheet  Metal  Workers,  and  Tile  Layers.  The 
following  are  typical  examples  of  rules  restricting  the  work 
of  helpers.  The  Iron  Molders  decided  in  1876  that  "any 
member  can  employ  a  person  for  the  following  purposes — 
to  skim,  shake  out  and  to  cut  sand,  but  for  no  other 
purposes."^*  The  helper  was  to  be  strictly  confined  to  this 
work  and  not  to  be  promoted  to  the  status  of  a  journey- 
man. A  former  rule  of  the  Boiler  Makers  was  as  follows ; 
"  Helpers  shall  be  kept  strictly  to  helpers'  work."^-^ 

Realizing  the  difficulty  of  confining  an  employee  to  work 
of  low  grade,  especially  when  it  is  to  the  interest  of  the  em- 
ployer to  advance  him,  the  unions  have  as  a  rule  sought  to 
strengthen  the  restrictions  as  to  work  by  hedging  them  about 
with  additional  regulations.  A  few  unions  have  done  this  by 
limiting  the  helper  in  the  use  of  tools.  For  example,  in  an 
agreement  of  Sheet  Metal  Workers,  Local  Union  Number 

^*  Constitution,  1876,  p.  35. 
15  Proceedings,  1901,  p.  266. 


309]  THE    USES   OF   THE    HELPER  37 

143,  of  New  York  City,  with  their  employers  it  is  stipulated 
that  each  employer  shall  be  allowed  one  helper  when  neces- 
sary, "  said  helper  not  be  considered  an  apprentice  and  must 
not  handle  tools."^^  It  is  obvious  that  this  restriction  as  to 
tools  is  merely  to  strengthen  and  enforce  the  rule  that  help- 
ers are  not  to  be  apprentices,  that  is,  learners  of  the  trade 
in  any  sense  of  the  word. 

Since  it  would  be  difficult  to  control  the  work  of  the 
helpers  if  their  number  were  excessive  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  work  allotted  to  them,  it  has  been  customary  for 
most  unions  which  pursue  the  policy  of  absolute  restriction 
to  limit  the  number  of  helpers  allowed  in  a  shop  or  on  a  job. 
For  instance,  when  the  Iron  Holders  first  began  their  great 
fight  against  the  use  of  "  berkshires "  in  the  molding  in- 
dustry, they  did  not  deny  the  necessity  for  helpers,  but  op- 
posed their  employment  by  the  molders,  and  especially  the 
employment  of  an  unlimited  number. ^^ 

There  are  certain  obstacles  which  have  prevented  trade 
unions  wholly  or  in  part  from  carrying  out  the  policy  of 
cutting  ofif  helpers  from  every  avenue  of  promotion.  These 
obstacles  may  be  enumerated  as  follows  :  (i)  the  indifference 
or  the  hostile  attitude  of  those  directly  affected  by  the  policy ; 
(ii)  the  rise  of  non-union  shops  in  consequence  of  efforts  at 
strict  enforcement;  (iii)  the  desire  to  extend  unionism  to 
unorganized  districts ;  (iv)  the  lack  of  a  definite  line  sepa- 
rating the  work  of  helpers  from  that  of  journeymen ;  (v)! 
non-uniformity  in  enforcement  by  different  local  unions; 
and  (vi)  the  decay  of  the  apprentice  system. 

(i)  The  lack  of  support  if  not  the  open  opposition  of  all 
the  classes  directly  concerned — journeymen,  helpers,  and 
employers — prevents  the  enforcement  of  absolute  restriction. 

Three  reasons  may  be  assigned  for  the  reluctance  of  jour- 
neymen to  aid  in  enforcing  the  rules  of  their  unions  forbid- 
ding the  promotion  of  helpers :  the  desire  of  journeymen  to 
exploit  fellow-workmen;  the  desire  of  skilled  mechanics  to 

'« Annual  Report,  New  York  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,   1908. 
Part  I,  p.  262. 
17  Motley,  p.  24. 


38  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS        [S  10 

get  rid  of  the  rough  work  of  a  trade;  and  the  personal 
friendship  existing  between  mechanics  and  their  helpers. 

By  allowing  helpers  to  encroach  upon  mechanics'  work, 
journeymen  who  are  paid  by  the  day  are  thus  relieved  of 
work  supposed  to  be  done  by  themselves.  At  the  Ma- 
chinists' Convention  in  191 1,  when  the  helper  question  was, 
as  often  before,  under  discussion,  a  delegate  said  that  the 
trouble  was  not  with  the  helper  or  the  specialist  but  with  the 
machinist,  who  is  directly  responsible  for  the  advancement 
of  the  helper  in  the  shop,  ofttimes  teaching  him  to  do  the 
work  which  he  is  paid  as  a  machinist  to  do  himself.^® 

If  the  journeymen  are  paid  by  the  piece,  each  of  them  is 
usually  anxious,  from  motives  of  self-interest,  to  have  his 
helper  or  helpers  do  as  much  work  as  possible.  A  contracting 
journeyman  is  often  able  to  make  a  considerable  profit  from 
his  helpers  by  employing  them  at  a  wage  much  lower  than 
that  which  journeymen  make,  and  by  having  them  do  all  the 
low-grade  and  perhaps  a  large  part  of  the  more  skilled  work 
of  the  trade.  Because  of  the  tendency  of  iron  molders  to 
do  this.  Local  Union  Number  i  of  Philadelphia  as  early  as 
1855  inserted  the  following  provision  in  its  constitution : 
"  Nor  shall  any  journeyman  working  by  the  piece  be  allowed 
a  helper  for  any  other  purpose  than  to  make  cores,  skim 
and  turn  out  castings  unless  a  majority  of  the  members  of 
this  union  in  a  shop  in  which  he  may  work  sign  a  paper  in 
favor  of  giving  him  permission."^^ 

Again,  journeymen  by  permitting  helpers  to  do  work 
which  is  classed  as  journeyman's  work  often  get  out  of  per- 
forming distasteful  work.  As  mechanics  become  highly 
skilled,  it  is  natural  that  they  should  take  pride  in  confining 
themselves  to  that  work  which  gives  a  certain  dignity  to  the 
worker.  The  disposition  of  journeymen  to  have  helpers  do 
the  rougher  part  of  journeymen's  work  is  indicated  in  the 
numerous  vmion  rules  directed  at  the  journeymen  rather  than 
at  the  employers.  For  example,  the  Machinists  provide  that 
"  journeymen  members  refusing  to  do  any  kind  of  work  be- 

^^  Proceedings,   191 1,  p.  148. 

^^International  Holders'  journal,  November,  191 1,  p.  825. 


3Il]  THE    USES    OF   THE    HELPER  39 

longing  to  the  trade  simply  because  it  may  be  rough  or  dirty 
shall  be  subject  to  a  fine  or  expulsion."^" 

It  happens  not  infrequently — so  state  many  trade-union 
leaders — that  union  regulations  designed  to  restrict  helpers 
to  unskilled  work  are  violated  by  journeymen  who  for  some 
reason  have  a  personal  interest  in  their  helpers.  This  per- 
sonal interest  may  be  the  result  of  family  or  neighborly 
relations,  or  of  long  and  intimate  association.  Speaking  on 
this  point,^^  Secretary  Reynolds  of  the  International  Union 
of  Ceramic,  Mosaic  and  Encaustic  Tile  Layers  and  Helpers 
said  that  the  tile  layer  and  his  helper  travel  from  place  to  place 
together;  that  they  become  intimate,  and  that  the  journey- 
man frequently  allows  his  helper  to  do  work  forbidden  by 
the  union.  This  same  personal  interest  often  induces  a 
mechanic  to  secure  for  his  helper  admission  to  full  union 
membership. 

The  persons  most  active  in  obstructing  the  enforcement 
of  union  regulations  forbidding  the  promotion  of  helpers 
are  the  employers,  who  naturally  claim  the  right  to  classify 
the  work  of  their  establishments  and  to  promote  deserving 
employees.  Consequently,  they  resent  the  demands  of  the 
unions  that  such  and  such  work  be  set  aside  as  helpers'  work 
and  that  no  helper  ever  be  promoted  to  journeymanship. 
The  National  Metal  Trades  Association,  for  example,  makes 
this  statement  in  its  declaration  of  principles :  "  Since  we,  as 
employers,  are  responsible  for  the  work  turned  out  by  our 
workmen,  we  must  have  full  discretion  to  designate  the  men 
we  consider  competent  to  perform  the  work  and  to  deter- 
mine the  conditions  under  which  the  work  shall  be  prose- 
cuted, the  question  of  the  competency  of  the  men  being  de- 
termined solely  by  us."^-  The  National  Association  of 
Manufacturers  declares  that,  "  in  the  interest  of  the  employ- 
ers and  the  employees  of  the  country,  no  limitation  should  be 
placed  upon  the  opportunities  of  any  person  to  learn  any 
trade  to  which  he  or  she  may  be  adapted. "^^ 

-^  Subordinate  Lodge  Constitution,   191 1,  art.  vi,   sec.  4. 

21  Interview  with  the  writer. 

22  The  Review,  March,  1914,  p.  v. 

23  Proceedings,  1903,  p.  166. 


40  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS        [3 1 2 

The  third  class  of  persons  who  hinder  the  enforcement  of 
the  union  policy  of  absolute  restriction  upon  the  promotion 
of  helpers  consists  of  the  helpers  themselves.  It  is  the  deep 
interest  of  the  helpers  in  their  own  welfare  that  makes  the 
execution  of  union  rules  pertaining  to  the  promotion  of 
helpers  distinctly  different  from  the  enforcement  of  most 
union  regulations.  Such  rules,  for  example,  as  those  having 
to  do  with  the  hours  of  labor  and  the  sanitary  conditions  of 
the  shops  concern  directly  two  classes  only, — the  employers 
and  the  employees  as  a  body,  and  the  extent  of  the  enforce- 
ment of  these  rules  is  the  resultant  of  two  more  or  less  con^ 
tending  forces.  On  the  other  hand,  the  extent  to  which  a 
rule  restricting  the  privileges  of  assistant  w'orkmen  is  en- 
forced is  the  resultant  of  three  distinct  forces,  as  in  such 
matters  the  employees  are  no  longer  a  unit,  but  are  divided 
into  two  distinct  groups.  If  a  local  union,  for  instance,  in 
any  trade  demands  an  increase  of  ten  per  cent  in  wages,  the 
success  of  their  demand  depends  upon  the  views  of  the  em- 
ployers as  to  the  desirability  of  the  increase  or  upon  the  com- 
parative strength  of  the  employers  and  of  the  employees  as  a 
whole.  But  if  the  same  union  demands  that  helpers  be  con- 
fined to  certain  work,  the  outcome  of  the  demand  is  rendered 
more  uncertain  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  the  helpers 
oppose  it. 

It  is  natural  that  every  workman  should  seek  to  obtain 
that  employment  which  will  bring  him,  other  things  being 
equal,  the  greatest  money  return  for  the  labor  expended. 
Every  helper,  therefore,  seeks  opportunity  for  advancement 
in  his  trade  or  industry.  If  the  employer  offers  him  a  posi- 
tion which  carries  with  it  a  larger  wage  than  he  has  beeji 
accustomed  to  receive,  he  will  in  all  likelihood  be  anxious  to 
grasp  the  opportunity.  Especially  will  he  be  likely  to  do 
this  if  by  so  doing  he  gets  rid  of  performing  unskilled  work. 
If  the  journeymen  go  on  a  strike  to  enforce  the  rule  that 
helpers  be  confined  to  helpers'  work  and  never  be  promoted 
to  journeymanship,  those  helpers  who  are  semi-skilled 
mechanics  will  probably  act  as  strike  breakers,  for  such  an 


313]  THE    USES    OF   THE    HELPER  4I 

occasion  presents  them  with  the  opportunity  for  rapid  pro- 
motion. 

In  trades  where  the  helpers  are  unorganized  there  is  little 
or  no  pressure  that  can  be  brought  to  bear  on  them  by  the 
unions  to  secure  conformity  to  helper  regulations.  The  aux- 
iliary workmen,  being  independent  of  the  unions,  do  not  fear 
the  loss  of  union  privileges  and  benefits,  nor  are  they  much 
influenced  by  appeals  to  support  the  cause  of  labor.  This 
point  will  be  more  fully  developed  in  a  later  chapter  on  the 
organization  of  the  helper. 

If  helpers  are  organized  and  stand  in  some  relation  to  the 
journeymen,  or  even  if  their  organization  is  independent  of 
the  journeymens'  unions,  there  is  a  possibility  that  fear  of 
the  loss  of  the  journeymen's  support  may  induce  caution  in 
violating  the  rules  of  the  union  of  which  the  helpers  are  a 
part  or  upon  which  they  rely  for  support.  Sometimes  help- 
ers will  even  enter  into  agreements  with  journeymen  which 
retard  the  advancement  of  the  helpers.  For  example,  the 
Mosaic  and  Encaustic  Tile  Layers  and  the  Hexagon 
Labor  Club  of  the  Tile  Layers'  Helpers  of  New  York  City 
agreed  "that  a  member  of  the  Hexagon  Labor  Club  shall 
accompany  a  tile  layer  on  all  jobs  within  a  radius  of  two 
hundred  miles  of  this  city  under  penalty  of  $25.00  for  the 
first  offense  and  $50.00  for  the  second  offense,  each  job 
worked  without  a  member  of  the  Hexagon  Labor  Club  to  be 
an  offense.  Also  the  helpers  will  not  be  allowed  to  handle 
tools,  to  lay  tiles  or  to  back  up  facings  under  similar  penal- 
ties. No  strike  shall  be  ordered  on  account  of  this  agree- 
ment until  after  a  conference  with  a  committee  of  the; 
bosses."^*  By  limiting  their  membership  and  by  securing 
the  assistance  of  strong  local  unions  of  mechanics  in  enforc- 
ing the  closed  shop,  organized  helpers  may  obtain  advantages 
which  offset  restrictions  upon  their  promotion.  Experi- 
ence in  most  trades,  however,  shows  that  when  chances  for 
promotion  come  to  helpers  they  will  accept  them  and  risk  the 
consequences. 

2*  Journal  of  the  Knights  of  Labor,  May  2,  1895,  p.  2. 


42  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [3 14 

(ii)  The  second  obstacle  to  the  enforcement  of  a  policy 
of  absolute  restriction  is  the  tendency  of  that  policy  to  pro- 
duce non-union  mechanics.  Intelligent  helpers  working  in 
intimate  contact  with  mechanics  will,  to  some  degree,  learn 
the  arts  of  the  craft,  however  difficult  the  work  may  be. 
If  such  helpers  are  not  given  some  hope  of  future  better- 
ment, they  become  indifferent,  if  not  actually  hostile,  to 
union  interests,  and  drift  into  non-union  ranks  as  oppor- 
tunities ofifer.  In  times  of  business  activity  or  of  threat- 
ened strike,  these  non-union  men  recruited  from  the  helpers 
are  a  force  to  be  reckoned  with  in  maintaining,  union  rules. 
In  short,  absolute  restriction  shuns  one  danger  only  to  fall 
into  another.  If  these  helper-trained  mechanics  are  ad- 
mitted to  the  tmion  in  order  to  enforce  demands  upon  the 
employers,  the  rule  that  helpers  shall  not  become  jour- 
neymen is  violated.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  helpers  are 
persistently  denied  union  privileges,  they  form  a  reserve 
force  by  means  of  which  the  employers  are  able  to  dictate 
terms.  A  writer  early  stated  with  reference  to  helpers  in 
iron  molding  that  if  a  molder  rebelled  against  a  reduction 
of  prices,  his  oldest  buck  would  take  his  place.  This  re- 
duced molders  to  a  state  of  serfdom. ^^ 

(iii)  The  extension  of  unionism  as  an  obstacle  to  the 
carrying  out  of  the  policy  of  absolute  restriction  is  closely 
connected  with  that  of  the  creation  of  non-union  shops. 
Helpers  in  union  shops  go  into  non-union  territory  aind 
secure  employment  as  journeymen.  Later,  when  the  union 
seeks  to  extend  its  jurisdiction  to  these  new  fields,  it  is 
virtually  obliged  to  take  in  all  workmen  found  engaged  as 
mechanics.  The  secretary  of  the  Tile  Layers  says  that  in 
1 91 3  he  organized  a  lodge  of  tile  layers  at  Dayton,  Ohio,  and 
that  every  member  of  that  lodge  had  formerly  been  a  helper 
in  some  other  teritory,  but  not  one  of  them  had  ever  before' 
been  recognized  by  the  union  as  a  competent  mechanic.^*' 

Self-preservation  may  force  a  union  to  disregard  its  policy 
in  individual  cases  where  a  helper  goes  neither  into  a  non- 

2^  Iron  Molders'  Journal.  January,  1877,  p.  194. 
26  Interview  with  the  writer. 


315]  THE    USES    OF   THE    HELPER  43 

union  shop  nor  into  new  territory.  If  a  helper  is  promoted 
contrary  to  union  regulations  and  the  conditions  are  such 
that  the  local  lodge  does  not  wish  to  resort  to  strenuous 
measures  to  nullify  such  promotion,  it  must  extend  the 
privileges  of  membership  to  the  helper  thus  promoted  in 
order  to  keep  control  of  the  work  over  which  it  claims 
jurisdiction. 

(iv)  The  fourth  obstacle  to  the  enforcement  of  the  policy 
of  absolute  restriction  is  the  difficulty  found  in  drawing  a 
line  between  the  work  of  the  helper  and  that  of  the  journey- 
man. In  some  trades  there  is  a  natural  division  of  work 
between  the  mechanic  and  his  helper.  In  the  blowing  of 
glass  bottles  there  is  no  difficulty  in  determining  the  respec- 
tive duties  of  a  journeyman,  a  mold  boy,  and  a  cleaner-off. 
In  other  trades,  as  of  a  machinist  or  a  blacksmith,  it  is  well- 
nigh  impossible  to  tell  just  where  the  work  of  the  helper 
ends  and  that  of  the  mechanic  begins.  Rules  to  the  effect^ 
that  helpers  must  be  kept  at  helpers'  work  are  here  difficult 
to  enforce,  with  the  result  of  gradual  encroachment  on  the 
part  of  the  auxiliary  workmen  upon  the  indefinitely  defined 
work  of  the  journeymen. 

This  encroachment  of  the  helper  is  increased  when  shop 
conditions  are  changing  by  reason  of  the  introduction  of  new 
machinery  and  of  new  processes  of  work.  If  a  new  ma- 
chine replacing  handwork  is  introduced,  the  question  will 
frequently  arise  as  to  whether  the  operation  of  the  machine 
by  an  employee  previously  a  helper  is  a  violation  of  the 
union  policy  and  of  the  union  agreement  that  helpers  must 
not  be  promoted  to  mechanics'  work.  The  unions  will  claim 
that  the  operation  of  the  machine  belongs  to  the  workmen 
whom  the  machine  has  displaced.  The  employers,  on  the 
contrary,  may  desire  to  have  the  machine  operated  by  a, 
cheaper  workman,  probably  a  former  helper  who  is  willing 
to  work  for  less  than  the  minimum  union  rate  for  journey- 
men. The  usual  result  is  to  force  the  union  to  extend  its 
jurisdiction  over  all  the  work  of  the  shop,  and  thus  to  open 
its  doors  to  workmen  previously  declared  ineligible  for  union 


44  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [316 

membership.  A  circular  sent  out  by  the  general  office  of 
the  Blacksmiths  in  1902  admits  that  helpers,  especially  in 
shops  using  much  machinery,  can  with  little  practice  do  a 
large  part  of  the  work  of  a  smith,  and  that  "the  drop-ham- 
mer forging  machines,  bolt-header,  bulldozer  and  other 
machines  have  gradually  but  surely  robbed  the  blacksmith 
of  his  individuahty  and  made  him  a  specialist."-^  Similar 
changes  in  the  machinists'  trade,  which  have  made  it  diffi- 
cult to  define  machinists'  work,  led  the  president  of  the  In- 
ternational Association  to  recommend  that  the  union  admit 
to  membership  all  workmen  in  machine  shops. -^ 

(v)  The  fifth  obstacle  to  the  enforcement  of  union  rules 
forbidding  the  promotion  of  helpers  and  their  entrance  into 
the  union  as  journeymen  is  that  non-enforcement  in  one  lo- 
cality may  prevent  enforcement  in  another.  With  respect 
to  the  necessity  for  uniform  enforcement,  a  trade-entrance 
requirement  differs  from  other  union  regulations.  If  a 
national  union  should  enact  an  eight-hour  rule  for  all  its 
members,  non-enforcement  in  some  localities  would  not  nec- 
essarily prevent  enforcement  in  others.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  a  national  union  have  a  rule  that  no  helper  shall  be  pro- 
moted to  journeyman's  work  or  admitted  to  union  member- 
ship as  a  journeyman,  and  if  a  part  of  the  local  unions  do  not 
enforce  the  rule,  its  effect  is  largely  destroyed,  since  helpers 
admitted  to  membership  in  one  local  union  cannot  as  a 
rule  be  denied  the  privilege  of  transferring  their  member- 
ship. The  power  of  a  national  union  to  keep  helpers  from 
being  promoted  and  admitted  to  the  union  as  journeymen  is 
measured  by  the  power  or  the  willingness  of  its  weakest 
local  unions  in  this  respect.  The  unions  which  have  adopted 
the  policy  of  absolute  restriction  have  made  vigorous  if 
often  ineffectual  efforts  to  force  all  local  unions  to  respect 
the  trade-entrance  regulations. 

(vi)  Finally,  the  decay  of  the  apprentice  system  is  an 
obstacle  to  the  enforcement  of  the  policy  of  absolute  re- 

27  Proceedings,  1903,  p.   15. 

'8  Bulletin,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor,  no.  67,  November,  1906,  p.  689. 


317]  THE    USES   OF   THE    HELPER  45 

striction.  It  is  not  my  purpose  to  enter  into  a  discussion  of 
the  decline  of  this  system  of  training  mechanics.  It  is  suffi- 
cient to  say  that  with  the  coming  of  the  modern  industrial 
system  apprentices  have  disappeared  in  many  trades,  even 
though  the  name  still  survives  and,  as  has  been  seen,  is 
applied  to  different  classes  of  auxiliary  workmen.  Since 
apprentices  are  few  in  American  trades,  the  ranks  of  the 
mechanics  must  be  filled  from  other  sources,  one  of  the  most 
fruitful  of  which  in  certain  trades  is  the  group  of  auxiliary 
workmen  employed  therein.  For  example,  Mr.  Perry,  a 
stove  manufacturer  of  Troy,  New  York,  arguing  for  the  use 
and  the  promotion  of  helpers  in  iron  molding,  said :  "  I  do 
not  use  the  term  apprentices,  for  the  reason  that  none  exist 
in  our  trade,  nor  have  they  ever  existed  within  my  remem- 
brance."23 

(b)  The  failure  of  the  rigid  plan  of  absolute  restriction 
has  led  most  unions  to  adopt  more  liberal  policies — policies 
not  adopted,  as  a  rule,  through  any  benevolent  motive,  but  in 
order  to  control  the  helper  and  to  advance  the  interests  of 
the  journeyman.  The  Blacksmiths,  Boiler  Makers,  Elec- 
trical Workers,  Elevator  Constructors,  Glass  Workers,  Ma- 
chinists, Potters,  Printing  Pressmen,  Plumbers,  Steam  Fit- 
ters, and  Tile  Layers  have  at  various  times  made  provision 
whereby  helpers  might  under  certain  conditions  be  advanced 
to  the  position  of  journeymen.  This  has  usually  been  an 
attempt  on  the  part  of  the  unions  to  bring  their  policy  into 
conformity  with  actual  conditions.  That  unions  have  ac- 
cepted, in  modified  form,  the  system  which  had  forced  itself 
upon  them  is  illustrated  by  the  experience  of  the  Black- 
smiths' International  Union. 

In  1902  a  circular  sent  out  by  the  general  office  of  the 
Blacksmiths'  Union  referred  to  the  fact  that  helpers  in 
machine  shops  readily  become  smiths,  and  that  daily  com- 
plaints were  received  to  the  effect  that  helpers  were  being 
put  on  fires  at  lower  rates  than  were  paid  smiths.^''  A  year 
later  Mr.  O'Connell,  in  rendering  a  decision  in  a  jurisdic- 


29  Quoted  in  the  Iron  Holders'  Journal,  May,  1877,  p.  327. 

30  Proceedings,   1903,   p.   15. 


46  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [318 

tional  dispute  between  the  International  Brotherhood  of 
Blacksmiths  and  the  Allied  Metal  Mechanics,  said :  "  My 
knowledge  of  the  blacksmith's  trade  leads  me  to  believe  that 
the  blacksmith's  helper  is  the  apprentice  to  the  blacksmith's 
trade  .  .  .  for  as  a  general  rule  there  are  no  apprentices  in 
the  Blacksmith's  trades  except  the  helper  who  is  looking 
forward  at  all  times  to  the  day  when  he  will  stand  behind 
the  anvil  as  a  blacksmith. "^^  By  referring  to  the  Black- 
smiths' constitution  it  is  seen  that  no  provision  was  made 
whereby  a  helper  could  become  a  smith.  The  constitution  of 
1899  merely  declares  that  "no  helper  shall  take  a  fire  unless 
he  receives  the  same  wages  paid  the  blacksmith. "^^  In 
1905,  however,  there  was  added  to  the  elaborate  apprentice- 
ship regulations  the  following  clause :  "  Local  unions  shall 
do  all  in  their  power  to  abolish  the  apprentice  system  and 
helpers  shall  be  advanced  according  to  merit."^^  The  fail- 
ure to  restrict  the  helper  thus  led  to  the  complete  abandon- 
ment of  the  apprentice  system  and  to  the  legalization  of  the 
prevailing  method  of  admission  to  the  trade.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  readoption  of  an  apprentice  clause  to  satisfy 
lodges  in  the  South,  where  helpers  are  in  the  main  negroes, 
the  International  Brotherhood  of  Blacksmiths  has  continued 
to  encourage  the  promotion  of  the  helper. 

Prominent  among  the  few  unions  which  still  hold  out 
against  the  promotion  of  helpers  on  any  terms  is  the  Inter- 
national Association  of  Marble  Workers.  This  union  fur- 
nishes an  excellent  example  of  the  reluctance  of  organized 
artisans  to  give  up  their  policy  of  absolute  restriction  even 
though  the  policy  is  not  enforced.  Joseph  McCulloch,  a 
business  agent  of  the  Marble  Cutters  and  Setters'  Union, 
stated  in  his  testimony  before  the  Industrial  Commission  in 
1901  that  the  marble  setters  are  mainly  recruited  from  the 
ranks  of  the  marble  setters'  helpers.^*  Yet  a  study  of  the 
constitutions  and  the  convention  proceedings  of  the  Inter- 

31  Proceedings,  1903,  p.  18. 

32  Art.  xiii,  sec.  3. 

33  Constitution,  1905,  art.  xiii,  sec.  3. 

3*  Report  of  U.  S.  Industrial  Commission,  vol.  viii,  p.  216. 


319]  THE    USES    OF   THE    HELPER  47 

national  Association  of  Marble  Workers  reveals  the  fact 
that  this  union  has  rejected  proposition  after  proposition 
providing  that  helpers  be  recognized  in  some  degree.  Al- 
though resolutions  on  this  question  have  been  ofifered  at 
almost  every  convention,  a  few  typical  examples  will  show 
how  determined  are  the  Marble  Workers  that  helpers  shall 
not  be  encouraged  by  the  union  to  become  mechanics. 

In  1906  Helpers'  Local  Union  Number  15  petitioned  the 
Marble  Workers  for  some  recognition  of  the  helper's  right 
to  become  a  marble  setter.  They  contended  that  when  the 
supply  of  setters  in  any  city  became  exhausted,  instead  of 
admitting  questionable  and  undesirable  men  into  the  setters' 
local  union,  helpers  of  experience  should  be  advanced  to 
the  position  of  improver.  This  very  modest  request  of  the 
helpers  was  refused.''^  Again,  in  191 1  an  amendment  to  the 
rules  of  the  International  Association  was  ofifered  to  the 
effect  that  in  localities  where  no  shops  exist  or  where  the! 
shops  employ  a  total  of  two  apprentice  cutters  or  less,  a 
helper  who  had  worked  at  his  branch  of  the  trade  three  years 
or  more  should,  when  the  demand  for  setters'  and  cutters 
was  greater  than  the  supply,  be  given  the  privilege  of  mak- 
ing application  to  the  local  union  of  cutters  and  setters  for 
membership.^''     This  amendment  was  not  adopted. 

Finally  in  1912  the  following  resolution  was  presented  to 
the  Marble  Workers'  convention  :  "  In  a  locality  where  there 
is  plenty  of  marble  work  and  marble  setters  cannot  be 
secured,  in  order  to  stop  the  people  not  belonging  to  the 
I.  A.  M.  W.  from  doing  marble  work  a  helper  who  has  been 
a  member  of  the  I.  A.  M.  W.  for  four  years  shall  be  given 
a  weekly  working  card  from  setters  to  set  marble  until  any 
number  of  setters  get  out  of  employment,  then  let  the  helper 
go  back  to  helping  but  after  the  helper  has  had  one  year's 
experience  at  setting  marble  he  shall  be  issued  a  marble 
journeyman  setters'  card."'^'  This  resolution  was  referred 
to  the  committee  on  constitution,  and  after  a  few  minor 

35  Proceedings,  1906,  p.  12. 
28  Proceedings,  191 1,  p.  20. 
37  Proceedings,  1912,  p.  188. 


48  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [320 

amendments  had  been  made  it  was  referred  to  the  local 
unions  for  a  referendum  vote.  Secretary  Hogan  of  the 
International  Association  says  that  practically  all  the  helpers 
voted  for  the  resolution  and  all  the  journeymen  against  it. 
Since  the  number  of  journeymen  in  the  union  greatly  ex- 
ceeds the  number  of  helpers,  the  resolution  was  lost.'^ 

After  a  union  has  once  recognized  the  helper  as  a  possible 
journeyman,  the  next  step  is  to  work  out  a  definite  scheme 
by  which  the  evils  involved  in  the  promotion  of  helpers  may 
be  minimized.  Two  plans  have  been  followed  in  this  par- 
ticular. One  has  been  to  make  the  promotion  of  helpers 
supplemental  to  the  regular  apprentice  system  in  vogue  in  a 
particular  trade;  the  other  has  been  to  adopt  an  exclusive 
helper  system  of  promotion  fashioned  as  nearly  as  possible 
after  the  customary  apprentice  system. 

At  the  present  time  the  Boiler  Makers,  Glass  Workers, 
Machinists,  Potters,  Printing  Pressmen,  and  Tile  Layers  are 
pursuing  the  plan  of  promoting  helpers  to  the  position  of 
apprentices.  The  International  Association  of  Boiler 
Makers  requires  that  "  fifty  per  cent  of  the  apprentices 
shall  be  taken  from  the  ranks  of  the  helpers,  local  condi- 
tions to  govern,  providing  such  helper  be  a  member  in  good 
standing  in  the  local  union  of  the  helpers  of  this  Brother- 
hood and  has  actually  worked  two  years  in  the  service  of 
the  company  to  which  he  is  to  serve  as  an  apprentice. 
Oldest  helpers  in  point  of  service  must  have  preference."^^ 
The  Machinists  by  a  recent  referendum  vote  decided  that 
helpers  are  eligible  to  become  apprentices.'*"  The  Inter- 
national Union  of  Ceramic,  Mosaic  and  Encaustic  Tile 
Layers  and  Helpers  provides  that  "  all  helpers  must  serve 
at  least  four  years  as  an  I.  U.  helper  before  becoming  an 
improver,"^^  and  that  "  all  improvers  shall  come  from  the 
ranks   of  the  helpers'   locals   affiliated   with  the   I.   U."*^ 

38  Interview  with  the  writer. 

s^  Subordinate  Lodge  Constitution,    1908,  art.  iii,   sec.  2. 

^^  Constitution,  1913,  art.  i,  p.  57. 

*^  Constitution,  1912,  art.  xiii,  sec.  5. 

*2  Ibid.,  art.  xxi,  sec.  3. 


32 1]  THE    USES    OF   THE    HELPER  49 

Likewise  among  the  Window  Glass  Workers*^  and  Print- 
ing Pressmen**  and  in  certain  branches  of  the  pottery  in- 
dustry*^ it  is  the  policy  of  the  unions  to  have  all  appren- 
tices taken  from  the  ranks  of  helpers  and  assistants. 

As  a  means  of  mitigating  the  evils  incident  to  the  use  of 
helpers  in  those  unions  seeking  to  maintain  apprentice 
regulations,  this  plan  of  having  a  part  or  all  of  the  appren- 
tices drawn  from  the  helpers  is  regarded  as  possessing 
distinct  advantages  over  the  policy  of  absolutely  forbidding 
the  promotion  of  a  helper  to  work  classed  as  journeyman's 
work.  In  the  first  place,  it  tends  to  conciliate  the  helper 
and  thus  to  prevent  the  growth  of  a  hostile  spirit  toward  the 
organized  journeymen.  If  helpers  are  given  some  oppor- 
tunity for  advancement,  how^ever  slight  that  opportunity 
may  be,  it  will  have  an  effect  in  keeping  them  from  violating 
union  regulations.  By  obeying  such  regulations  a  helper 
may  hope  that  some  day  he  will  receive  union  assistance 
in  his  efTorts  to  gain  recognition  as  a  journeyman.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  he  violates  the  union  regulations  he  is  brought 
into  union  disfavor  and  cut  off  from  all  aid  in  his  efforts  to 
become  a  journeyman  or  to  better  his  condition. 

Again,  this  policy  hedges  in  and  strengthens  the  regular 
apprentice  system  in  that  it  provides  for  a  longer  period  of 
training  for  those  entering  the  ranks  of  the  journeymen.  It 
also  limits  more  narrowly  the  field  from  which  apprentices, 
so  called,  may  be  drawn.  The  Tile  Layers  require  that 
helpers  serve  four  years  in  order  to  become  improvers,  and 
that  improvers  serve  two  years  in  order  to  be  eligible  for 
membership  as  journeymen.  This  makes  the  full  period  of 
learning  the  trade  six  years,  and  limits  very  narrowly  the 
source  from  which  both  improvers  and  journeymen  can  be 
drawn.  There  is  the  further  advantage  that  an  apprentice 
regulation  of  this  kind  will  secure  the  aid  of  the  helpers  in 

*3  Proceedings,  1906,  p.  136. 

4*  Constitution  and  By-laws,  1903,  art.  iii,  sec.  i.  _ 

45  Wage  Scale  and  Agreements  between  the  United  Association 

of    Potters   and   the    National    Brotherhood   of    Operative    Potters, 

191 1,  p.  16. 


50  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS        [322 

preventing  employers  from  getting  improvers  or  apprentices 
from  any  source  except  the  helpers. 

It  has  been  the  continuous  policy  of  the  Steam  Fitters, 
the  Elevator  Workers,  the  Potters — in  certain  branches  of 
the  industry — and  lately  the  Blacksmiths  to  allow  the  pro- 
motion of  helpers,  and  to  restrict  their  employment  and 
promotion  with  limitations  similar  to  the  ordinary  appren- 
tice regulations,  as  well  as  with  the  additional  requirement 
that  a  helper  must  stand  an  examination  before  a  committee 
of  journeymen  before  he  shall  be  recognized  as  eligible  for 
journeymanship.  Thus,  the  International  Association  of 
Steam,  Hot  Water  and  Power  Pipe  Fitters  and  Helpers 
provides  that  "  each  Local  Branch  of  Steam  Fitters  shall 
have  a  trade  test  or  examining  board  to  examine  into  the 
mechanical  ability  and  moral  character  and  physical  condi- 
tion of  all  candidates  seeking  admission  to  membership  as 
Steam  Fitters.  No  Local  Branch  of  Steam  Fitters  shall 
accept  an  application  unless  the  applicant  can  show  he  has 
worked  five  years  at  the  trade."*^  Likewise,  an  electrical 
worker's  helper  must  serve  four  years  before  he  is  allowed 
to  take  an  examination  for  promotion.'*'^  The  Blacksmiths 
provide  neither  for  a  definite  time  of  service  nor  for  an 
examination,  but  merely  make  provision  that  "  helpers  shall 
be  advanced  according  to  merit."^^ 

The  essential  thing  in  the  provisions  of  all  the  unions  for 
the  promotion  of  helpers  without  an  additional  period  of 
service  as  apprentices  is  that  the  whole  matter  is  placed  in 
the  hands  of  the  examining  committee  or  of  the  organized 
journeymen.  This  is  a  departure  from  the  customary  mode 
of  dealing  with  apprentices,  who  are  usually  not  required 
to  undergo  the  ordeal  of  an  examination. 

The  question  naturally  arises  as  to  the  reason  for  this 
distinction.  Why  do  unions  which  recognize  the  helpers  as 
the  legitimate  learners  of  their  respective  trades  demand 
that  the  helpers  be  required  to  take  an  examination  to  test 

^«  Constitution,   1908,  sec.  32. 

*^  Constitution,   1909,  art.  vi,  sec.  i. 

*s  Constitution  for  Local  Unions,  1912,  art.  xiv,  sec.  3. 


323]  THE    USES    OF   THE    HELPER  5 1 

their  fitness  for  journeymanship,  while  those  unions  which 
recognize  only  apprentices  as  the  learners  of  a  trade  as  a 
rule  make  no  such  requirement?  Why  does  the  Inter- 
national Brotherhood  of  Blacksmiths,  for  example,  provide 
that  apprentices  shall  become  smiths  when  they  have  served 
four  years,  but  at  the  same  time  very  indefinitely  provide 
that  "  helpers  shall  be  advanced  according  to  merit "  ?*^ 
Again,  why  is  it  that  the  United  Association  of  Journeymen 
Plumbers,  Gas  Fitters,  Steam  Fitters  and  Steam  Fitters' 
Helpers  provides  that  plumbers'  apprentices  shall  serve  an 
apprenticeship  of  five  years,^°  but  that  steam  or  sprinkler 
fitters'  helpers  must  pass  a  satisfactory  examination  before 
they  can  become  eligible  to  membership  ?^^  It  cannot  be 
because  journeymen  are  in  a  position  to  know  the  efficiency 
of  the  apprentice  better  than  they  do  that  of  the  helpers; 
for,  if  anything,  helpers  work  in  closer  contact  with  jour- 
neymen than  do  apprentices.  It  is  not  that  the  unions 
which  promote  their  helpers  do  not  keep  in  close  touch  with 
them  and  consequently  know  nothing  of  the  time  served  as 
helpers,  because  all  such  unions  register  their  helpers  and 
keep  complete  account  of  them  by  methods  similar  to  those 
of  other  unions  in  keeping  track  of  their  apprentices.  The 
extent  to  which  this  is  sometimes  done  is  shown  by  the 
following  rule  of  the  International  Association  of  Steam 
Fitters :  "  Helpers  must  be  affiliated  three  years  with  the 
local  they  were  initiated  into  before  they  are  entitled  to 
transfer  to  another  local  of  helpers."^- 

There  are  two  possible  explanations  of  the  differences 
existing  in  the  promotion  of  helpers  and  of  apprentices. 
The  first  is  that  among  helpers  there  are  often  many  mature 
men  who  have  never  learned  any  trade  and  are  unlikely 
ever  to  be  desirable  candidates  for  membership  as  journey- 
men. Such  being  the  case,  an  examination  is  the  most 
practical  way  of  separating  the  desirable  candidates  from 

*9  Constitution  for  Local  Unions,  1912,  art.  xiv,  sec.  3. 

5*' Constitution,  1910,  sec.  117. 
''I  Constitution,  1910,  sec.  138. 
52  Constitution,  1908,  sec.  33. 


52  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS        [324 

those  not  wanted.  With  the  apprentice  it  is  different.  As 
a  rule  only  a  few  apprentices  are  taken  in  a  shop,  and  they 
are  taken  in  primarily  to  learn  the  trade.  It  is  possible  to 
exercise  much  discretion  in  their  selection.  If  capable  and 
earnest  boys  are  chosen,  it  is  more  than  likely  that  at  the 
end  of  a  specified  apprenticeship  period  they  will  be  fit  for 
entrance  to  journeymanship. 

The  second  reason  for  this  distinction,  and  perhaps  the 
more  plausible  one,  is  that  there  is  more  danger  of  over- 
crowding a  trade  by  a  helper  system  of  preparation  than 
by  an  apprentice  system.  Extra  precautions  are  therefore 
necessary  in  order  to  prevent  such  a  surplus  of  workmen. 
That  the  examination  of  helpers  desiring  to  become  union 
journeymen  is  designed  to  limit  the  number  entering  the 
trade  rather  than  primarily  to  test  the  skill  of  the  candidate 
is  suggested  by  the  numerous  complaints  that  are  made  by 
contractors  to  this  effect.  The  dissatisfaction  with  the 
union  examining  board  frequently  terminates  in  a  decided 
stand  against  accepting  the  union  decisions  as  to  who  is  pre- 
pared to  do  mechanics'  work.  Thus  the  Master  Steam 
Fitters  of  St.  Louis  made  the  following  rule :  "  Any  fitter 
having  been  rejected  by  the  examining  board  of  the  union, 
shall  be  examined  by  a  committee  of  the  M.  S.  F.  A., 
and  if  found  competent  shall  be  permitted  to  work  in  any 
shop  that  will  employ  him."^^  That  the  Steam  Fitters' 
board  had  been  rejecting  capable  mechanics  seems  probable, 
for  the  Master  Steam  Fitters  would  hardly  have  wanted  to 
employ  inefficient  men  and  pay  them  the  standard  rate  of 
wages.  A  special  report  of  the  United  States  commissioner 
of  labor  states  as  to  the  steam  fitters  that  "  the  contractors 
complain  very  much  that  there  are  not  enough  union  work- 
men for  the  work  that  should  be  done  in  the  busy  season. 
They  claim  that  the  union  intentionally  keeps  its  member- 
ship low,  and  that  the  means  of  doing  this  is  by  making  the 
conditions  of  the  examination  such  that  new  men  can  not 
pass  it."^* 

^3  Report  of  U.  S.  Industrial  Commission,  vol.  vii,  p.  949. 

^*  Eleventh  Special  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Labor,  p.  375 


325]  THE   USES    OF   THE    HELPER  53 

That  there  are  some  grounds  for  these  claims  of  the 
employers  is  confirmed  by  the  dissatisfaction  of  helpers 
with  the  rules  providing  for  their  promotion.  The  Tile 
Layers  appear  to  be  more  liberal  in  their  treatment  of 
helpers  than  most  unions,  yet  there  is  much  dissatisfaction 
among  the  helpers  of  this  trade  with  the  limited  opportuni- 
ties for  promotion  given  them  by  the  local  unions.  A  mem- 
ber of  the  helpers'  lodge  of  tile  layers  at  Pittsburgh,  writing 
in  the  Tile  Layers'  journal,  protests  against  the  hampering 
of  the  tile  layers'  helpers  by  the  tile  layers, ^^  Another 
writer,  presumably  a  helper,  says  that  according  to  the 
present  system,  helpers  remain  helpers  for  years  before  they 
can  become  journeymen.^^  Even  the  president  of  the  Tile 
Layers  pleads  that  the  helpers  be  given  fair  play,  asserting 
that  the  journeymen  too  often  look  after  their  own  interests 
to  the  detriment  of  the  helpers.^'' 

It  is  pertinent  to  ask  why  there  should  be  any  likelihood 
of  there  being  too  many  mechanics  from  the  union  point  of 
view  if  helpers  are  promoted,  or  why  extra  precautions  are 
considered  necessary  if  a  helper  instead  of  an  apprentice 
system  of  trade  entrance  prevails.  The  answer  is  found  in 
the  circumstance  that  if  workers  are  primarily  engaged  to 
learn  a  trade  and  only  incidentally  assist  a  journeyman,  it 
may  be  easy  to  dispense  with  such  assistance  and  to  limit 
the  number  of  apprentices  to  conform  to  the  needs  of  the 
trade,  but  if  workers  are  primarily  employed  to  assist 
journeymen  and  incidentally  learn  the  trade,  such  limita- 
tions as  to  number  are  not  ordinarily  practicable.  The 
Steam  Fitters,  for  instance,  would  like  to  diminish  the 
number  of  helpers  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  journey- 
men on  a  job,  but,  recognizing  that  each  fitter  needs  a 
helper,  they  simply  seek  to  conform  to  the  following  rule : 
"A  journeyman  Steam  Fitter  shall  be  entitled  to  one 
helper  only."^^ 

55  Tile  Layers  and  Helpers'  Journal,  November,  1906,  p.  12. 
^^  Ibid.,  April,  1912,  p.  12. 
^''^  Ibid.,  June,  1905,  p.  8. 

^8  Constitution,  Local  Union  No.  120,  Cleveland,  1912,  art.  iii, 
sec.  6. 


54  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [326 

From  the  union  point  of  view  here  lies  the  peculiar  evil 
inherent  in  a  helper  system  of  promotion  to  a  trade  as  con- 
trasted with  an  apprentice  system.  If  it  be  acknowledged 
that  a  helper  is  an  essential  factor  in  the  performance  of  the 
duties  of  one  mechanic,  it  may  be  argued  that  every  me- 
chanic should  be  supplied  with  a  helper.  It  might  also  be 
reasonably  argued  that  if  one  helper  at  the  end  of  a  certain 
time  of  service  as  a  helper  shows  efficiency  and  is  advanced  to 
journeymanship,  all  helpers  fulfilling  the  same  requirements 
should  likewise  be  advanced.  But  if  all  journeymen  should 
have  helpers  and  all  helpers  should  in  a  certain  time  become 
journeymen,  the  result  would  be  a  serious  dislocation  of 
union  policies. 

An  editorial  in  the  official  journal  of  the  Plumbers  for 
February,  1904,  argues  as  follows  along  this  line:  "Taking 
up  the  rule  that  every  plumber  should  have  one  helper,  and 
that  the  helper  should  serve  four  years,  let  us  see  what  the 
result  would  be  in  about  eight  years.  Figuring  that  there 
are  200  plumbers  in  a  city,  each  one  with  a  helper,  in  four 
years  there  would  be  200  more  plumbers.  There  would  be 
400  plumbers  in  a  city  that  hasn't  use  for  over  215  or  220. 
In  another  four  years  there  would  be  800  plumbers  in  a  city 
that  has  no  use  for  more  than  250  or  perhaps  300."  This 
wholesale  method  of  recruiting  a  trade  will  by  the  law  of 
supply  and  demand  crowd  down  wages,  with  all  the  evils 
incident  thereto. 

This  same  danger  is  voiced  by  a  writer  in  the  Steam 
Fitters'  journal :  "  Generally  speaking,  the  helper  of  today 
is  the  steam  fitter  of  tomorrow,  and  I  would  suggest  that 
steps  be  taken  as  soon  as  practicable  whereby  a  method  will 
be  adopted  providing  for  a  system  of  apprenticeship.  .  .  . 
If  something  is  not  done  to  regulate  the  number  of  young 
men  desiring  to  learn  our  trade,  eventually  there  will  be  a 
large  surplus  on  the  market."^^ 

In  order  to  restrict  more  narrowly  the  numbers  entering 
a  trade   and   to   keep   helpers    from   doing   journeymen's 

59  Communication  in  Proceedings,  1907,  p.  13. 


327]  THE    USES    OF   THE    HELPER  55 

work,  the  unions  adopting  the  helper  system  of  trade  en- 
trance have  sought  in  some  form  or  other  to  Hmit  as 
rigidly  as  possible  the  number  of  helpers  employed  in  a  shop 
or  on  a  job.  An  agreement  between  the  Steam  Fitters  and 
their  employers  in  Washington  in  1900  provides  that  "no 
steam  fitter  shall  work  more  than  one  helper  on  pipe  ranging 
from  three  and  one-half  inches  down,  and  two  helpers  on 
pipe  ranging  from  four  inches  upwards."*"'  A  similar  agree- 
ment between  the  master  and  the  journeymen  plumbers  of 
McAlester,  Oklahoma,  stipulates  that  no  shop  shall  be 
allowed  more  than  one  registered  helper,  who  shall  not 
handle  tools  except  when  working  with  journeymen.^^ 

In  adopting  regulations  to  govern  the  number  and  the 
promotion  of  helpers,  trade  unions  have  in  a  large  measure 
sought  to  limit  the  number  of  journeymen  and  have  given 
only  slight  consideration  to  the  needs  of  particular  em- 
ployers or  to  the  skill  of  the  helpers.  Such  regulations  have 
been  difficult  to  enforce.  Any  rule  limiting  the  advance- 
ment of  helpers  interferes  with  the  interests  of  journeymen, 
employers,  and  helpers  as  individuals,  and  will  meet  disre- 
gard, opposition,  and  evasion.  Moreover,  as  in  the  case  of 
absolute  restriction  upon  the  promotion  of  helpers,  the  rigid 
enforcement  of  a  modified  policy  is  hindered  by  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  unions  to  organize  all  shops  in  union  territory 
and  to  extend  unionism  into  every  field  where  members  of 
their  respective  crafts  are  employed.**^ 

(2)  Inability  to  keep  the  helper  within  certain  prescribed 
limits  or  to  formulate  a  scheme  for  his  promotion  has  led 
a  few  national  unions,  notably  the  Plumbers  and  the  Iron 
Holders,  to  deny  the  right  of  employers  to  use  helpers  at 
all.  In  1894,  after  the  Plumbers  had  been  debating  the 
helper  question  for  years,  a  writer  in  the  Plumbers'  official 
journal  asserted  that  helpers  had  been  a  most  important 
factor  in  bringing  about  the  demoralization  of  the  trade, 
and  that  a  solution  of  the  helper  question  would  solve  many 

^'^  Proceedings,  1900,  p.  52. 

61  Plumbers,  Gas  and  Steam  Fitters'  Journal,  July,  1908,  p.  13. 

<'2  See  above,  pages  37-45- 


56  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [328 

Other  questions  which  were  a  matter  of  concern  to  the 
plumbers.*'^  From  this  time  attention  began  to  be  centered 
on  the  abohtion  of  all  helpers.  Various  rules  have  since 
been  passed  designed  to  make  effective  the  policy  of  getting 
rid  of  the  helper  class.  This  policy  is  clearly  set  forth  in 
the  resolution  passed  at  the  national  convention  in  1897  that 
where  there  was  no  conflict  with  previous  agreements  all 
helpers  and  apprentices  should  be  abolished."*  The  fight 
against  the  use  of  helpers  was  waged  on  two  grounds, 
namely,  that  the  helper  is  not  needed,  and  that  the  proper 
regulation  of  the  system  is  impossible. 

As  to  the  first,  it  has  been  contended  that  plumbers 
seldom  need  assistance,  and  that  when  assistance  is  neces- 
sary it  is  in  every  way  better  to  have  two  journeymen  work 
together  than  to  use  one  journeyman  and  a  helper.  It  is 
even  claimed  that  the  use  of  helpers  tends  to  foster  laziness 
in  the  journeyman.  It  is  quite  evident  that  this  argument 
as  set  forth  by  the  Plumbers  has  very  little  force.  It  was 
almost  unknown  until  it  was  decided  that  helpers  were  a 
menace  to  the  welfare  of  the  union ;  moreover,  it  is  contrary 
to  human  nature  for  a  body  of  workmen  to  desire  to  get  rid 
of  assistants  on  no  other  ground  than  that  they  are  not 
needed. 

The  real  cause  for  the  Plumbers'  desire  to  abolish  all 
helpers  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  nature  of  the  trade  is  such 
that  it  is  difficult  to  regulate  their  work  and  advancement. 
As  a  prominent  plumber,  Mr.  Rogan  of  Minneapolis,  has 
said,  "  The  only  proper  solution  of  the  helper  question  is 
not  to  have  any  helpers  at  all."*^^  The  effect  of  the  helper 
system  in  producing  a  surplus  of  workmen  and  in  causing 
trade  disintegration  is  seen  at  its  greatest  in  the  plumbing 
trade.  This  can  best  be  understood  by  contrasting  this 
trade  with  another  trade  which  is  very  much  like  it, — steam 
fitting. 

®3  Plumbers,  Gas  and  Steam  Fitters'  Official  Journal.  April,  1894, 
p.  8. 

^*  Proceedings,  1897,  p.  T2>- 

62  Plumbers,  Gas  and  Steam  Fitters'  Official  Journal,  October 
and  November,  1906,  p.  TJ. 


329]  THE    USES    OF   THE    HELPER  57 

In  the  first  place,  plumbing  is  predominantly  an  industry 
of  small  shops.  There  are,  of  course,  large  jobs  requiring 
contractors  of  considerable  capital  and  responsibility ;  but  a 
great  part  of  the  plumbing  of  a  city  consists  of  small  jobs, — 
putting  in  a  single  closet,  sink,  or  bathtub.  These  small 
jobs,  together  with  a  large  amount  of  repair  work,  afford  a 
means  of  Hvelihood  for  the  master  plumber  with  little  capital, 
and  offer  a  field  of  work  for  the  low-grade  mechanic.  If 
each  plumber  has  a  helper  and  if  each  helper  becomes  a 
journeyman,  the  trade  will  be  speedily  overcrowded  and 
unemployment  will  result.  This  unemployment  will  lead  to 
the  establishment  of  more  small  shops,  for  it  is  no  great 
undertaking  for  a  plumber  having  a  kit  of  tools  to  open  a 
small  establishment  of  his  own.  Again,  if  the  helpers  are 
prevented  by  union  rules  from  entering  the  trade  as  union 
members,  they  drift  into  small  non-union  shops  or  con- 
tribute to  the  establishment  of  more  of  like  size.  In  either 
case,  the  helpers  find  their  way  into  the  trade  and  increase 
the  number  of  journeymen.  The  existence  of  these  low- 
grade  shops  renders  organization  difficult,  decreases  the 
stability  of  bodies  already  organized,  and  makes  collective 
bargaining  uncertain.  In  short,  it  results  in  the  general 
depression  of  the  trade. 

In  steam  fitting  there  is  not  the  same  likelihood  that  so 
many  small  shops  will  be  established.  Steam  fitting  jobs 
are  usually  the  installation  of  large  plants,  work  upon  which 
is  done  as  a  unit.  The  contractor  must  possess  some  capital 
and  must  be  a  man  of  considerable  responsibility.  The 
absence  of  conditions  favorable  to  the  establishment  of 
small  shops  places  the  Steam  Fitters  in  a  position  to  con- 
trol their  trade.  If  helpers  become  dissatisfied  with  the 
treatment  accorded  them  by  the  journeymen,  they  have  few 
small  non-union  shops  into  which  they  can  go,  nor  can  they 
profitably  set  up  as  masters.^^ 

<"''  The  Baltimore  business  agent  of  the  International  Association 
of  Plumbers,  Gas  Fitters,  Steam  Fitters  and  Steam  Fitters'  Helpers 
states  that  in  Baltimore  there  are  about  800  plumljing  shops,  15  of 
which  are  union,  and  that  about  10  steam-fitting  establishments,  all 
union,  do  practically  all  the  steam  fitting  in  the  city. 


58  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS         [330 

Again,  plumbing  is  more  liable  to  disintegration  and  to 
a  grading  of  work  than  is  steam  fitting.  Even  if  there 
were  not  so  many  small  contractors  in  the  plvimbing  busi- 
ness, the  helper  would  be  a  dangerous  factor  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  journeymen  plumbers.  When  calls  come 
for  low-grade  construction  or  for  repair  work,  it  is  more 
than  likely  that  a  helper,  provided  one  man  can  do  the  work, 
will  be  sent.  As  a  result,  the  helper  and  the  poorly  trained 
mechanic  often  find  employment  while  mechanics  of  higher 
grade  are  idle.  In  steam  fitting,  inasmuch  as  the  work  is 
of  a  more  uniform  character  and  is  done  on  the  average  for 
a  higher  class  of  buildings,  there  is  not  the  same  tendency 
either  to  grade  work  or  to  send  the  poorer  workers  to  the 
job. 

In  iron  molding  there  are  similar  possibilities  of  trade 
disintegration  growing  out  of  the  helper  system.  For 
years  the  Iron  Holders'  Union  has  sought  to  get  rid  of  the 
helpers  known  as  berkshires.  A  discussion  of  the  berk- 
shire  system  and  the  policy  of  the  union  in  connection  there- 
with will  be  taken  up  with  the  question  of  the  payment  of 
the  helper,  for  the  two  questions  are  indissolubly  connected. 

Obviously,  a  union  which  is  opposed  to  the  promotion  of 
helpers  proper  will  also  be  opposed  to  the  employment  of 
advanced  helpers,  for  it  is  from  the  former  class  of  work- 
men that  the  latter  is  recruited.  Conversely,  a  union  which 
provides  for  the  promotion  of  helpers  proper  to  an  in- 
termediary position,  as  before  explained,  provides  for  the 
employment  of  advanced  helpers.  Union  policies  with  refer- 
ence to  the  advanced  helper  who  is  allowed  to  become  a 
journeyman  have  been  already  sufficiently  set  forth  in  con- 
nection with  the  consideration  of  the  helper  proper.  The 
policy  of  the  unions  is  to  limit  very  strictly  the  number  of 
such  helpers. 

Organized  journeymen  in  a  few  trades  have  allowed, 
though  reluctantly,  the  employment  of  advanced  helpers  of 
a  different  kind,  that  is,  helpers  who  are  not  permitted  to 
become  journeymen.     This  policy  has  been  adopted  in  order 


33  l]  THE    USES   OF   THE    HELPER  59 

to  avoid  competition  with  such  men  as  non-unionists  and 
to  provide  for  unionizing  the  helpers  without  giving  them 
recognition  as  full  mechanics.  This  is  the  type  of  advanced 
helper  who  works  at  certain  jobs  within  a  trade,  often 
independently  of  the  supervision  of  a  journeyman.  The 
handy-man  or  specialist,  as  this  type  of  workman  is  usually 
called,  is  very  Hkely  to  be  employed  in  those  trades  which 
are  capable  of  a  minute  division  of  labor.  In  the  ma- 
chinists' and  the  boiler  makers'  trades  in  particular  the 
handy-man  has  been  a  troublesome  factor.  Though  these 
unions  provide  for  the  organization  of  the  handy-men,  they 
have  always  wished  if  possible  to  eliminate  them.  As 
President  Gilthorpe  of  the  Boiler  Makers  says :  "  We  are 
working  to  eHminate  the  middle  man  or  the  handy  man."^^ 
The  policy  of  abolishing  all  helpers  is  more  difhcult  to  en- 
force than  the  other  policy  previously  .described.  The  jour- 
neymen themselves  stand  in  the  way.  This  is  due  (a)  to 
the  desire  of  artisans  to  perform  only  skilled  work,  and  (b) 
to  the  desire  of  individuals  to  be  in  positions  of  authority, 
(a)  When  a  man  becomes  in  a  high  degree  skilled  in  his 
trade,  he  is  strongly  inclined  to  restrict  his  work  to  the  more 
skilled  and  technical  parts.  He  takes  delight  in  doing  that 
which  others  cannot  do  or  which  they  can  do  only  with 
great  difficulty.  In  addition  to  satisfying  his  desire  to  do 
skilled  work  only,  he  obtains  greater  remuneration  for  his 
services  if  he  is  engaged  at  all  times  in  work  which  requires 
expert  craftsmanship.  It  is  obvious  that  if  an  employer  can 
afford  to  pay  a  certain  amount  for  the  production  of  an 
article,  it  becomes  possible  for  the  skilled  artisan  to  obtain 
a  higher  wage  when  the  low-grade  work  is  performed  by  a 
cheap  workman  than  when  he  does  all  the  work.  These; 
motives  have  contributed  to  the  increase  of  the  number  of 
helpers  in  many  trades,  and  consequently  have  been  great 
stumbling  blocks  to  unions  in  their  efforts  to  restrict  the 
number  of  helpers  or  to  abolish  the  system. 

The  editor  of   the   Plumbers'   official   journal,  in   coni- 
es In  letter  to  the  writer. 


60  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [332 

meriting  on  the  disposition  of  journeymen  to  demand  a 
helper,  said  that  some  journeymen  think  they  ought  to  have 
a  boy  to  carry  their  overalls  around  and  to  shine  their  tools 
for  them.*'^  Organizer  Burke  of  the  Plumbers  declared  that 
"  we  have  no  one  to  blame  but  ourselves  as  the  journeymen 
all  around  this  eastern  country  are  too  lazy  to  carry  theif 
kits.  The  majority  want  a  boy  with  them  all  the  time.  In 
some  cases,  I  have  known  our  men  to  quit  when  they  were 
refused  a  helper."^^  The  president  of  the  International  As- 
sociation of  Machinists  said :  "  You  will  notice  from  the 
report  on  strikes  that  we  have  had  several  strikes  against  the 
introduction  of  the  '  handyman '  system.  The  employers  are 
not  to  blame  for  this  in  all  cases,  for  now  and  then  we  find 
instances  where  the  machinists  refuse  to  do  a  certain  class  of 
work.  As  a  result  the  employer  is  forced  to  employ  who- 
ever he  can  to  do  the  rough  and  dirty  work.""° 

In  harmony  with  the  above  statements  are  the  following 
expressions  from  prominent  employers.  John  S.  Perry,  a 
former  stove  manufacturer  of  Albany,  in  commenting  on  the 
berkshire  system,  said :  "  From  time  immemorial,  previous 
to  the  formation  of  the  molders'  union,  it  was  a  custom  al- 
most without  exception  for  a  molder  to  employ  at  least  one 
helper  and  not  unfrequently  two  and  even  three.  It  would 
then  have  been  considered  a  hardship  if  they  had  been 
denied  this  privilege.""^  A  Chicago  employer  said  that  his 
firm  used  as  many  handy-men  as  they  would  if  they  ran  a 
non-union  shop.  By  way  of  explanation  he  said :  "  We  find 
that  while  machinists  may  object  to  handymen  doing  the 
work  for  which  they  are  competent,  they  themselves  do  not 
wish  to  do  this  class  of  work,  and  in  this  case  have  dropped 
their  complaints  if  told  that  they  would  have  to  do  it  if 
they  did  not  allow  the  handymen  to  do  it."'- 

(b)  Closely  connected  with  the  wish  of  a  man  to  do  skilled 

^^  Plumbers,  Gas  and   Steam  Fitters'  Official  Journal,   February, 
1906,  p.  2. 
^^  Ibid.,  December,  igo8,  p.   10. 
"0  Machinists'  Monthlj'  Journal,  June,  1903.  p.  486. 
"^Iron  Molders'  Journal,  May,  1877,  p.  326. 
'-  Eleventh  Special  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Labor,  p.  221. 


333]  'THE    USES   OF   THE    HELPER  6 1 

work  only  is  the  desire  to  control  and  supervise  other  work- 
men, thereby  exalting  his  own  importance.  A  writer  in  the 
Iron  Holders'  Journal  in  1873  made  this  statement:  "Let  us 
pay  a  visit  to  a  carwheel  shop.  What  do  we  find?  Two 
men  working  together :  one  is  a  molder,  the  other  is  a  helper. 
Between  them  they  do  two  days'  work.  The  helper  pre- 
pares the  chill,  inserts  the  pattern,  does  all  the  ramming,  and 
the  molder  finishes  the  mold:  but  if  it  is  blue  Monday,  the 
molder  lays  back  on  his  dignity,  and  the  helper  becomes  both 
molder  and  helper  for  the  day.""^ 

Employers  are  emphatic  in  the  assertion  of  their  right  to 
employ  any  number  of  helpers  and  to  promote  them  as  they 
see  fit.  One  of  the  principles  of  the  National  Metal  Trades 
Association,  stated  in  1902  and  still  maintained,  is  that  "the 
number  of  apprentices,  helpers  and  handymen  to  be  em- 
ployed will  be  determined  solely  by  the  requirements  of  the 
employer.""*  The  National  Founders'  Association  in  its 
outlined  policy  asserts  in  similar  terms  that  "the  number  of 
apprentices,  helpers  and  handymen  to  be  employed  will  be 
determined  solely  by  the  employer.""^ 

While  such  declarations  voice  the  spirit  of  independence 
characterizing  an  employing  class,  there  are  nevertheless 
strong  economic  reasons  why  employers  should  wish  not  to 
be  restricted  in  the  employment  of  helpers.  Helpers  may 
be  a  source  of  profit  to  the  employer  by  enabling  him  to 
economize  in  the  use  of  labor,  by  supplying  a  sufficiency  of 
labor  in  times  of  general  trade  activity,  and  by  saving  the 
duplication  of  machinery. 

In  trades  where  the  character  of  the  work  is  such  that  one 
or  more  persons  must  work  together,  or  where  work  cannot 
be  divided  into  skilled  and  unskilled  parts  but  must  be  per- 
formed as  a  unit,  employers  usually  favor  the  use  of  helpers. 
Their  contention  is  that  in  such  cases  work  can  be  done  as; 
well  and  as  quickly  by  one  skilled  craftsman  working  in  con- 

73  October,  1873,  P-  132. 

■^4  Report  of  the  President  of  the  Machinists,  May  i,  1902,  p.  5; 
The  Review,  April,  1913,  p.  53. 
75  The  Review,  May,  1913.  P-  55- 


62  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [334 

junction  with  one  or  more  helpers  as  by  two  or  more  expert 
mechanics.  Likewise,  if  it  is  possible  to  divide  the  work 
of  a  trade  into  skilled  and  unskilled  parts,  it  is  usually  to  the 
employers'  interests  to  make  such  a  division  of  work  and 
to  employ  labor  corresponding  in  skill  to  the  work  to  be 
done.  Thus  it  is  expensive  for  contracting  plumbers  and 
steam  fitters  to  have  heavy  material  carried  to  the  place  of 
construction  by  journeymen  who  receive  from  four  to  five 
dollars  per  day.  In  a  difficulty  between  the  master  and  the 
journeymen  steam  fitters  of  St.  Louis  one  of  the  points  at 
issue  was  the  right  of  the  master  fitters  to  employ  such  labor 
as  they  saw  fit  to  move  and  place  heavy  material  of  any 
description.'^^ 

It  is  to  the  interests  of  the  employers  to  use  helpers  when- 
ever such  use  will  enable  high-priced  mechanics  to  continue 
uninterruptedly  at  highly  skilled  work.  Thus  Mr.  Perry, 
speaking  for  the  stove  manufacturers,  said :  "  A  large  por- 
tion of  the  flasks  require  two  persons  to  *  lift  of? '  and  to 
*  close,'  consequently  if  there  are  no  helpers  the  molders  are 
subject  to  constant  interruptions  in  assisting  each  other,  and 
thus  much  valuable  time  is  needlessly  lost  by  skilled  work- 
men."" 

Another  important  consideration  with  employers  is  the 
elasticity  given  to  the  supply  of  workmen  by  the  helper  sys- 
tem. There  are  ordinarily  in  a  city  only  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  journeymen  to  meet  the  usual  trade  demands.  When 
a  rush  comes  on  and  the  supply  of  journeymen  is  exhausted, 
the  employers  may  advance  their  work  by  employing  more 
helpers  and  having  them  do  the  less  skilled  parts  of  the  work 
which  are  sometimes  performed  by  full  mechanics.  In  a 
season  when  building  is  very  active,  master  plumbers  often 
desire  to  employ  helpers  to  take  from  the  journeymen  all 
the  labor  possible,  in  order  that  a  contract  may  be  finished 
within  a  specified  time.  At  a  national  convention  of  Master 
Plumbers  in  1885  one  of  the  delegates  said  that  the  fluctua- 
tions of  their  business  are  of  such  a  nature  that  from  neces- 

^^  Report  of  U.  S.  Industrial  Commission,  vol.  vii,  p.  949. 
''^  Quoted  in  the  Iron  Molders'  Journal,  May  10,  1877,  P-  326. 


335]  "THE    USES    OF   THE    HELPER  63 

sity  young  men  must  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period  of  time 
be  employed  as  helpers  for  the  journeymen/* 

In  some  industries  manufacturers  claim  that  by  using  help- 
ers they  are  often  saved  the  cost  of  duplicating  machinery 
and  patterns.  Mr.  Perry,  who  has  been  previously  quoted, 
stated  in  this  connection  that  such  aid  was  important  to  the 
manufacturer.  A  molder  working  alone  can  put  up  thirty 
of  the  larger  pieces  of  a  stove,  while  the  demand  for  these 
might  be,  say,  forty  pieces  a  day.  With  a  helper  he  might 
put  up  forty  and  save  duplicating  patterns.  Thousands  of 
dollars  have  been  saved  in  this  way.'^^ 

The  unions  have  been  far  from  successful  in  their  efforts 
either  to  restrict  the  number  of  helpers  to  the  usual  num- 
ber of  apprentices  or  to  abolish  them  entirely.  The  United 
Brotherhood  of  Plumbers  has  perhaps  fought  the  employ- 
ment of  helpers  more  zealously  than  any  other  union,  but  it 
has  made  little  headway  in  the  accomplishment  of  its 
purpose. 

In  1896  the  Plumbers  passed  stringent  rules  with  regard 
to  the  employment  of  apprentices,  and  since  a  helper  was 
considered  as  equivalent  to  an  apprentice,  the  same  laws 
were  extended  to  helpers.^°  Inasmuch  as  the  local  lodges 
had  not,  as  a  rule,  been  enforcing  the  provisions  of  the 
national  union  with  respect  to  helpers  and  apprentices,  the 
following  regulation  was  adopted :  "  Any  local  union  failing 
to  enforce  these  laws  after  said  date  shall  for  the  first  offense 
be  fined  $50.00  and  after  the  lapse  of  four  weeks  if  not 
enforced  shall  forfeit  their  charter  in  the  United  Associa- 
tion."®^ At  the  next  annual  convention  only  two  local  unions 
claimed  to  have  lived  up  to  the  rules.*^  From  Massachu- 
setts it  was  reported  that  two  lodges  had  attempted  to  carry 
out  the  regulation.  These  two  local  unions  had  gone  out  on 
strike,  and  now  appealed  to  the  national  association  for 
financial  assistance.®' 

'8  Proceedings,   1885,  p.  181. 

^^  Iron  Molders'  Journal,  May  10,  1877,  pp.  326-327. 

*'•  Constitution,   1897,  p.  25. 

^1  Ibid.,  art.  xv,  sec.  7. 

^2  Proceedings,  1897,  P-  68. 

83  Ibid.,  p.  71. 


64  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS         [336 

In  the  next  year,  1897,  the  Association  went  on  record  in 
favor  of  doing  away  with  both  helpers  and  apprentices.^* 
The  action  of  the  convention  in  1899  indicated  that  the  reg- 
ulations of  1897  must  have  proved  ineffective,  for  again  the 
regulations  were  changed.  This  time  it  was  provided  that 
the  executive  board  of  the  Plumbers  should  designate  a 
number  of  local  unions  which  should  do  away  with  helpers 
and  apprentices.^^  In  1902  the  president  of  the  Plumbers 
said :  "  During  the  past  year  gratifying  progress  has  been 
made  by  a  large  number  of  our  locals  eliminating  the  helper 
and  the  establishment  of  a  proper  apprentice  system.  .  .  . 
We  shall  continue  our  efforts  to  abolish  the  unnecessary 
helper.''^'' 

In  1904  the  president  of  the  Plumbers  again  reported 
progress  in  restricting  the  employment  of  helpers,  but  added : 
"  In  several  cities  where  our  local  unions  have  been  working 
entirely  without  helpers,  attempts  have  been  made  within  the 
past  year  by  the  employers  to  return  to  the  former  custom. 
.  .  .  The  reduction  of  the  number  of  helpers,  I  believe,  is  of 
more  importance  to  the  future  welfare  of  our  members  than 
is  the  question  of  increase  of  wages."®'  There  must  have 
been  considerable  dissatisfaction  with  the  progress  made, 
for  all  the  rules  then  in  force  were  dropped  and  a  new 
rule  was  adopted  which  left  the  helper  question  largely  in 
the  hands  of  the  local  unions. 

While  the  United  Association  has  not  changed  its  regula- 
tions in  regard  to  helpers  since  1904,  the  elimination  of  the 
helper  has  by  no  means  been  accomplished,  and  still  contin- 
ues to  be  one  of  the  important  topics  at  the  national  con- 
ventions of  plumbers.  For  instance,  at  the  convention  of 
1906  there  was  a  lengthy  discussion  as  to  whether  the  con- 
vention should  take  definite  action  on  the  helper  and  appren- 
tice question  or  refer  it  to  a  joint  committee  of  journeymen 

s*  Proceedings,  1897,  p.  y2- 
^^  Constitution,   1899,  P-  26. 

8^  Plumbers,    Gas   and    Steam    Fitters'    Official   Journal,    October, 
1902,  p.  25. 
s"  Ibid.,  October,  1904,  p.  29. 


337]  '^HE    USES    OF   THE    HELPER  65 

and  master  plumbers.  In  the  course  of  the  discussion  one 
delegate  said  that  he  did  not  think  it  possible  to  eliminate 
the  helper  because  "the  public  would  not  stand  for  it." 
Another  delegate  said  that  the  helper  laws  never  had  been 
enforced.^^  Finally,  it  was  decided  to  leave  the  matter  to 
a  joint  committee.  This  committee  met  at  Indianapolis  in 
1908,  but  nothing  was  accomplished.^^ 

It  thus  appears  that  the  Plumbers  have  made  little  prog- 
ress in  their  efforts  to  abolish  the  helper.  For  instance,  in 
New  York  prior  to  the  year  1903  the  Plumbers  had  insisted 
on  carrying  all  fixtures  to  the  floors  where  they  were  to  be 
used,  but  an  agreement  in  this  year  between  the  master  and 
the  journeymen  plumbers  provided  that  porters  should  do 
work  of  this  nature.  It  was  also  agreed  that  no  helpers  or 
apprentices  should  be  hired  from  1903  to  1908,''°  but  by  a 
new  agreement,  made  in  1908,  each  plumber  is  allowed  one 
helper  and  no  term  is  specified  for  a  helper  to  serve  before 
he  becomes  eligible  as  a  journeyman.  When  a  helper  con- 
siders himself  competent,  he  may  apply  through  his  em- 
ployer for  an  examination  before  the  joint  examining  board 
of  master  and  journeymen  plumbers.  If  successful  in  the 
examination,  he  is  rated  as  a  first-class  man  and  becomes  a 
member  of  the  journeymen's  association.^^ 

A  few  local  unions  have  been  successful  in  their  struggle 
against  the  employment  of  helpers.  In  Chicago  in  1899,  by 
an  agreement  between  the  master  and  journeymen  plumbers, 
helpers  were  eliminated.^-  President  Burke  of  the  United 
Brotherhood  of  Plumbers  declares  that  at  the  present  time 
the  union  shops  of  Chicago  employ  no  helpers  other  than 
those  who  are  regular  apprentices.^^     While  a  few  other 

*8  Proceedings,  1906,  p.  'jy. 

80  Plumbers,  Gas  and  Steam  Fitters'  Official  Journal,  February, 
1908,  p.  9,  December,  1908,  p.  43. 

90  Eleventh  Special  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Labor, 
p.  362. 

31  Annual  Report,  New  York  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  1908, 
Part  I,  p.  184. 

92  Plumbers,  Gas  and  Steam  Fitters'  Official  Journal,  April,  1899, 
p.  8. 

93  Interview  with  the  writer. 

5 


66  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [338 

unions  have  from  time  to  time  reported  the  passing  of  the 
helper,  it  is  evident  from  the  foregoing  discussion  that  on 
the  whole  but  little  progress  has  been  made  by  the  Plumbers 
in  this  direction.  The  other  unions  which  have  tried  to 
restrict  very  narrowly  the  number  of  helpers  employed  or 
to  eliminate  them  entirely  have  had  essentially  the  same  ex- 
perience as  the  Plumbers. 


CHAPTER    II 
The  Hiring  and  Compensation  of  the  Helper 

The  problems  involved  in  the  hiring  and  compensation  of 
helpers  are  most  clearly  exhibited  in  those  unions  wherein  the 
piece  system  of  pay  and  the  employment  of  helpers  prevail. 
At  the  time  of  the  organization  of  the  Iron  Holders'  Interna- 
tional Union  the  jurisdiction  of  the  journeymen  molders  ex- 
tended to  all  the  work  of  a  shop.  It  included'  the  skilled 
work  of  preparing  and  finishing  the  molds  and  also  such  un- 
skilled work  as  attending  the  crane,  carrying  flasks,  temper- 
ing sand,  skimming  the  molten  iron,  and  taking  out  castings. 
The  molder  did  not,  however,  attend  to  all  of  these  varied 
duties  himself.  What  was  known  as  the  berkshire  system 
prevailed  in  most  shops.  Each  molder,  acting  largely  under 
pressure  from  the  employer,  engaged  one  or  more  "  bucks," 
or  berkshires,  to  assist  him,  and  paid  them  from  his  own^ 
earnings. 

Before  the  organization  of  the  International  Holders' 
Union  there  was  much  opposition  by  the  various  local  unions 
to  the  berkshire  system.  Thus  in  the  initial  constitution  of 
the  Journeymen  Stove  and  Hardware  Holders'  Union  of 
Philadelphia,  organized  in  1855,  there  is  found  the  following 
provision  with  regard  to  helpers :  "  No  member  of  this  union 
shall  take  a  boy  to  learn  the  trade  (unless  it  be  his  natural 
or  adopted  son),  nor  shall  any  journeymen  working  by  the 
piece  be  allowed  a  helper  for  any  other  purpose  than  to  make 
cores,  skim  and  turn  out  castings,  unless  a  majority  of  the 
members  of  this  union  in  which  he  work,  sign  a  paper  in 
favor  of  giving  him  permission."'^ 

From  the  first  the  International  Holders'  Union  opposed 
this  system.     Its  efforts  were  directed  to  (i)  the  abolition 

1  International  Molders'  Journal,  November,  191 1,  p.  825. 

67 


68  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS        [34O 

of  the  prevailing  system  of  hiring  and  paying  the  helpers, 
and  (2)  the  abolition  of  all  helpers  proper  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  definite  line  between  the  work  of  the  molders 
and  that  of  the  remote  helpers.  The  attainment  of  the  first 
of  these  ends  was  deemed  necessary  to  the  accomplishment 
of  the  second,  which  was  the  real  consideration. 

( I )  The  early  attitude  of  the  Molders  toward  the  employ- 
ment of  berkshires  was  phrased  as  follows:  "We  desire 
here  and  now  to  say  that  it  is  against  the  spirit  and  intent  of 
the  law,  is  against  justice  and  common  sense,  is,  in  fact,  un- 
constitutional for  any  member  of  the  Iron  Holders'  Inter- 
national Union  to  employ  a  helper  and  pay  him  out  of  hisi 
earnings.  No  helper  can  be  employed  unless  paid  by  the 
proprietor  of  the  shop,  and  no  piece  molder  can  run  a  helper, 
whether  employed  by  himself  or  his  employer."-  In  the 
constitution  of  1876  it  took  the  form  of  an  outright  pro- 
hibition :  "  No  member  working  by  the  piece  can  employ  a 
helper  and  pay  him  out  of  his  (the  molder's)  wages. "^  This 
same  constitution  declares  that  "  an  employer  demanding 
of  molders  that  they  shall  work  bucks  shall  constitute  a  lock 
out  if  indorsed  in  accordance  with  law."*  The  attitude  of 
the  Holders'  Union  toward  the  employment  of  bucks  as  in- 
dicated above  has  never  changed.  If  less  is  heard  about 
the  opposition  now  than  formerly,  it  is  because  the  system 
has  been  for  the  most  part  abandoned. 

When  Secretary  Kleiber  of  the  International  Holders' 
Union  was  asked  why  the  Molders  objected  so  strongly  to  the 
system,  he  replied  in  substance  that  such  a  system  brings  out 
all  the  selfishness,  all  the  niggardliness,  in  the  molders,  with 
the  result  that  the  interests  of  the  craft  are  sacrificed  to  per- 
sonal interests.  A  further  consideration  of  the  system  will 
explain  what  is  here  implied.  In  the  first  place,  the  payment 
of  the  helper  by  the  molder  tends  to  lessen  the  amount  of 
work  to  be  done  by  the  skilled  molder,  and  to  overcrowd  the 
trade  more  than  is  the  case  where  the  helper  is  paid  by  the 

2  Iron  Holders'  Journal,  October  I,  1873,  p.  133. 
2  P.  35. 
^  Ibid. 


34 1 ]      HIRING   AND    COMPENSATION    OF   THE    HELPER  69 

firm  and  all  work  is  done  by  the  day  instead  of  by  the  piece. 
In  other  words,  the  evils  of  a  helper  system  are  accentuated 
when  the  journeyman  assumes  the  role  of  employer.  A 
molder  agrees  with  his  employer  to  work  at  so  much  a  piece 
and  pay  his  own  helpers.  The  greater  the  amount  of  rela- 
tively unskilled  work  the  molder  has  done  by  helpers,  the 
more  time  he  can  give  to  the  highly  skilled  work  and  conse- 
quently the  greater  his  remuneration.  But,  in  reality,  by 
encouraging  molders  to  give  over  a  large  part  of  their  work 
to  helpers,  the  amount  of  employment  open  to  journeymen  is 
decreased,  with  a  consequent  decline  in  the  rate  of  wages. 
Again,  the  helpers,  if  allowed  to  encroach  upon  the  more 
skilled  parts  of  molding,  learn  the  trade ;  then,  if  the  wages 
paid  them  by  the  molders  are  not  to  their  liking,  they  set  up 
as  molders  themselves  and  thus  increase  the  supply  of  jour- 
neymen. 

The  union  view  has  been  summed  up  as  follows :  "  The 
system  now  in  full  force  in  Buffalo  was  the  almost  universal 
system  in  1855-59,  from  one  to  five  '  Bucks  '  for  every  jour- 
neyman ;  wages  were  being  rapidly  reduced ;  every  reduction 
was  followed  by  the  journeyman  hiring  another  buck. 
Molders  were  made  about  four  times  as  fast  as  the  neces- 
sities of  the  case  or  increase  of  the  trade  called  for.  Mold- 
ers became  so  plentiful  that  all  sorts  of  odious  rules  could 
be  enforced  with  impunity."^ 

(2)  Payment  of  helpers  by  the  molders  and  their  control 
by  the  molders  have  been  so  intimately  associated  that  it  is 
impossible  to  consider  them  as  distinct  problems.  Suffice  it 
to  say  that  any  attempt  to  limit  the  work  of  the  helper  and 
yet  allow  the  molder  to  employ  and  pay  him  has  been  found 
impractical,  for  as  long  as  a  journeyman  has  an  assistant 
paid  by  himself,  he  will  exploit  the  helper  to  the  fullest  ex- 
tent possible.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  unsatisfactory  to 
have  an  employer  pay  a  helper  and  place  him  under  the  con- 
trol of  a  journeyman  who  is  working  by  the  piece,  for  it 
would  be  to  the  advantage  of  the  molder  to  have  the  helper 

s  Iron  Holders'  Journal,  October,  1873,  p.   11. 


yO  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS        [342 

do  as  much  work  as  possible,  thus  inducing  the  evils  above 
described. 

The  policy  of  the  Molders  has,  therefore,  consisted  of  two 
parts.  They  wished  to  have  all  helpers  paid  by  the  em- 
ployers, and  they  wished  to  withdraw  the  helper  from  the 
direction  of  the  molder,  confining  his  work  to  definite  and 
specific  tasks.*'  In  carrying  out  this  policy  they  met  opposi- 
tion and  evasion  on  the  part  of  many  journeymen.  This  is 
indicated  in  the  numerous  resolutions  introduced  in  the  na- 
tional conventions  providing  for  modifications  of  the  rigid 
rules  against  the  use  of  berkshires.  For  example,  at  the 
thirteenth  convention  of  the  International  Union  the  follow- 
ing resolution  was  offered  but  rejected:  "Resolved:  That 
any  member  working  by  the  piece  on  w'ork  that  he  is  obliged 
to  use  the  crane,  shall  be  allowed  to  hire  a  helper  to  do  all; 
of  his  laboring  work.""  Though  the  union  remained  firm 
in  its  policy  at  all  times,  "  many  of  the  older  members  com- 
plained bitterly,  and  evaded  the  intent  of  the  regulation  by 
adopting  a  boy,  for  the  union  recognized  the  right  of  the 
journeyman  to  teach  the  trade  to  his  o\vn  or  adopted  son."® 

In  like  manner  the  employers  resisted  the  efforts  of  the 
union  to  change  or  modify  the  prevailing  system  of  work. 
For  almost  a  half  century  there  was  a  continuous  strugglq 
between  the  union  and  the  employers  on  the  berkshire  ques- 
tion, involving  strikes  and  lockouts.  Gradually  the  berk- 
shires were  eliminated.  In  1899  President  Fox  of  the  In- 
ternational Union  reported  that  "  the  Berkshire  system  exists 
in  very  few  of  the  stove  shops  today,  and  I  believe  the  day  is 
near  at  hand  when  it  will  pass  aw^ay  entirely."^  Frey  and 
Commons  state  that  the  berkshire  system  was  entirely  abol- 
ished before  1904.^°  As  far  as  the  writer  has  been  able  to 
determine,  this  statement  is  correct.  Secretary  Kleiber  of 
the  Molders'  Union  says  that  to  the  best  of  his  knowledge  the 

^  Iron  Molders'  Journal,  October,  1873,  p.   131. 
''■  Proceedings,  1876,  p.  54- 
8  Motley,  p.  24. 
^  Proceedings,  1899,  p.  5. 

1°  "  Conciliation  in  the  Stove  Industry,"  in  Bulletin,  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Labor,  no.  62,  January,  1906,  p.  176. 


343]       HIRING   AND    COMPENSATION    OF   THE    HELPER  /I 

berkshire  system  has  been  completely  abolished  in  the  United 
States  in  both  union  and  non-union  shops. 

The  abolition  of  the  berkshire  system  does  not  mean  that 
helpers  have  been  done  away  with  in  the  iron-molding  in- 
dustry. Even  in  the  best  regulated  union  shops  helpers 
called  "  laborers "  are  employed  to  do  such  work  as  the 
carrying  and  the  tearing  down  of  flasks,  and  in  a  general 
way  getting  materials  and  implements  ready,  in  order  that  the 
molder  may  continue  uninterruptedly  at  the  more  skilled 
processes  of  molding.  At  times  these  laborers  serve  as 
helpers  proper  to  the  molders.  For  instance,  a  laborer  or 
helper  is  assigned  to  each  molder  to  assist  him  in  carrying 
the  molten  iron  and  pouring  it  into  the  molds.  In  shops 
where  heavy  machinery  and  car  wheels  are  molded,  helpers, 
paid  by  the  firm,  work  in  intimate  contact  with  the  molders 
at  practically  every  stage  of  the  work. 

In  1902  in  a  conference  between  the  representatives  of  the 
Iron  Molders'  Union  and  the  Stove  Founders'  National 
Defense  Association,  the  following  agreement  was  made 
with  reference  to  helpers :  "  The  general  trend  of  industrial 
development  is  towards  employing  skilled  labor,  as  far  as 
practicable,  at  skilled  work,  and  in  conformance  with  this 
tendency  every  effort  should  be  made  by  the  members  of 
the  S.  F.  N.  D.  A.  and  the  I.  M.  U.  of  N.  A.  to  enable  the 
molder  to  give  seven  hours  of  service  per  day  at  molding,  and 
to  encourage  the  use  of  unskilled  help  to  perform  such  work 
as  sand  cutting  and  work  of  like  character,  when  the  molder 
can  be  given  a  full  day's  work." 

The  practice  of  promoting  helpers  to  the  position  of  mold- 
ers has  not  ceased  with  the  disappearance  of  berkshires.  In 
shops  where  small  castings  are  made  the  work  of  the  helper 
is  so  remote  from  that  of  the  molder  that  helpers  have  little 
opportunity  to  learn  the  more  skilled  processes  of  molding. 
In  such  cases  the  apprentice  system  prevails.  In  shops 
where  large  castings  are  made  the  helper  system  has  com- 
pletely displaced  the  training  of  apprentices.  In  estab- 
lishments turning  out  a  large  variety  of  work  such  helpers 


^2  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS        [344 

as  show  a  special  aptitude  for  molding  are  promoted  to  high- 
grade  work,  while  other  helpers  are  confined  to  the  lower 
grade. 

Early  in  the  history  of  the  iron  industry  in  this  country 
the  boiler  or  puddler  and  the  roller  were  recognized  as  hav- 
ing full  charge  of  the  work  in  their  respective  departments. 
They  hired  the  necessary  helpers  and  paid  them.  This  prac- 
tice was  so  universal  that  when  the  iron  workers  first  or- 
ganized, this  system  of  hiring  and  paying  the  helper  was 
accepted  without  question.  With  the  introduction  of  the 
manufacture  of  sheet  iron  practically  the  same  plan  of  em- 
ploying helpers  was  adopted.  Thus  the  system  of  employ- 
ment was  established  throughout  the  industry. 

The  problems  arising  in  connection  with  such  a  contract 
system  of  work  are  quite  different  in  the  manufacture  of 
iron  and  steel  from  what  they  are  in  iron  molding.  This 
can  easily  be  seen  from  the  following  considerations :  First, 
the  employment  and  payment  of  helpers  by  journeymen  in 
the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  does  not  lead  to  an  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  helpers  as  it  does  in  the  case  of 
molding.  A  boiler  or  puddler,  for  instance,  will  turn  out  a 
certain  product  each  day  and  can  use  to  advantage  a  certain 
number  of  helpers,  but  to  increase  this  number  would  not! 
increase  his  output  and  would  therefore  be  a  financial  loss  to 
him.  Second,  an  increase  in  the  number  of  molders  is  more 
practicable  than  an  increase  in  the  number  of  puddlers.  If 
helpers  become  efficient  molders,  it  is  an  easy  matter  for  the 
employers  to  find  places  for  them  as  journeymen ;  but  if 
helpers  in  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  become  capable 
of  taking  charge  of  furnaces  or  of  rolls,  journeymen's  jobs 
cannot  so  easily  be  provided  for  them.  The  output  of  a 
mill  is  relatively  inelastic  and  cannot  be  increased  by  the 
simple  addition  of  more  workmen.  Third,  the  number  of 
molding  establishments  is  much  greater  than  is  the  number 
of  iron  and  steel  mills,  consequently  there  are  greater  op- 
portunities for  a  helper  in  a  molding  shop  to  obtain  em- 
ployment as  a  journeyman  in  another.     Fourth,  helpers  in 


345]       HIRING   AND    COMPENSATION    OF   THE    HELPER  73 

the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  are  for  the  most  part  em- 
ployed because  it  is  physically  impossible  for  journeymen  to 
prosecute  their  work  without  assistance.  On  the  other  hand, 
helpers  are  employed  in  a  foundry — except  where  large 
machinery  is  cast — because  of  the  advantages  of  a  division 
of  labor,  and  they  could  be  dispensed  with. 

Since  the  nature  of  the  iron  and  steel  industry  makes 
necessary  a  certain  number  of  helpers,  and  at  the  same  time 
makes  it  difficult  for  helpers  to  encroach  upon  the  work  of 
the  journeymen,  it  is  natural  that  the  helpers  should  be 
considered  as  the  rightful  learners  of  the  trade  and  that 
no  apprentice  system  should  be  established  by  the  union.^^ 
Thus  the  employment  and  compensation  of  the  helper  can 
be  studied  as  a  problem,  apart  from  the  encroachment  of, 
the  helper  upon  the  work  of  the  journeymen  and  from  his 
effect  on  an  established  apprentice  system. 

The  chief  question  which  concerned  the  Iron,  Steel  and  Tin 
Workers  in  connection  with  the  employment  and  payment  of 
helpers  has  not  been  who  shall  hire  and  pay  them,  but  how 
much  shall  they  be  paid  and  how  shall  uniformity  be  se- 
cured in  the  wages  of  helpers  doing  similar  work.  As  early 
as  1870,  one  of  the  leading  topics  at  the  convention  of  the 
United  Sons  of  Vulcan  was  what  proportion  of  the  wages 
received  by  a  workman  should  be  passed  on  to  his  helpers. 
A  petition  submitted  to  this  convention  proposed  that  helpers' 
wages  "  shall  be  uniform,  and  that  no  more  than  one-third 
shall  be  paid  one  Helper,  nor  more  than  one  half  of  what  the 
furnace  makes  shall  be  paid  to  two  Helpers. "^^  The  com- 
mittee to  which  this  proposition  was  referred  spoke  of  it  as 
"  a  good  one,  and  one  long  desired — one  that  your  Com- 
mittee would  be  much  pleased  to  see  in  successful  opera- 
tion everywhere.  But  to  make  it  uniform  through  the  action 
of  this  National  Forge  would  be  impracticable.     Wages  of 


11  In  the  early  days  of  the  union  some  restrictions  were  placed 
upon  the  promotion  of  helpers.  Thus  in  1881  the  Association  passed 
the  following  resolution :  "  Each  puddler  helper  must  help  one  year 
and  be  six  months  a  member  of  the  Association  before  he  be 
allowed  the  privilege  of  boiling  a  heat"  (Proceedings,  p.  682). 

12  Vulcan  Record,  vol.  i,  no.  6,  1870,  p.  20. 


74  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [346 

Helpers  have  been,  and  we  presume  will  be,  controlled  by 
circumstances,  as  they  exist  in  respective  localities.  If  all 
were  a  unit  upon  the  subject,  its  successful  inauguration 
could  be  hoped  for ;  but  as  certain  localities  have  certain 
rules  upon  the  subject,  we  can  barely  expect  much  uniform- 
ity— hence  the  impropriety  of  adopting  any  measure  at  pres- 
ent looking  to  that  end.  That  a  Helper  should  receive  more 
than  one-third,  no  reasonable  person  would  assert,  for  when 
we  consider  that  the  Helper  is  as  it  were,  an  apprentice! 
learning  the  business,  one-third  is  ample ;  and  by  a  strict 
adherence  to  this  policy,  the  Helper  himself  would  derive 
the  full  advantages  of  his  trade,  when  completed  to  take 
charge  of  a  furnace.  But  your  Committee  would  commit 
the  subject  to  the  consideration  of  the  various  Subordinate 
Forges,  suggesting  that  they  adopt  such  regulations  relative 
thereto,  as  the  circumstances  will  warrant."^^ 

This  report  was  adopted,  but  it  led  to  no  definite  action, 
and  the  same  subject  continued  to  be  prominent  at  all  con- 
ventions of  the  National  Forge.  The  "  one-third  and  five 
per  cent  "  rule  was  gradually  adopted  in  the  various  dis- 
tricts, and  finally  became  a  regulation  of  the  Amalgamated 
Association.^*  Since  then,  rules  have  been  adopted  for  the 
uniform  payment  of  helpers  in  all  departments. 

While  the  union  has  accepted  the  customary  mode  of  pay- 
ing helpers,  there  has  been  a  tendency  in  recent/  years  to 
drift  away  from  this  method  and  to  demand  that  all  helpers 
be  paid  by  the  firm.  There  are  two  assignable  reasons  for 
this.  In  the  first  place,  payment  by  the  journeyman  is  in- 
convenient to  both  helper  and  journeyman.  In  the  second 
place,  with  such  a  system  it  is  difficult  to  maintain  a  uniform 
wage  rate  for  helpers  doing  the  same  class  of  work.  Even 
though  the  union  fix  a  rate  for  the  payment  of  all  helpers, 
such  a  scale  is  difficult  to  enforce.  If  the  helpers  are  not 
members  of  the  union,  as  was  true  in  the  case  of  the  United 
Sons  of  Vulcan,  they  felt  in  no  wise  bound  to  abide  by  the 

13  Vulcan  Record,  vol.  i,  no.  6,  1870,  p.  20. 

1*  D.  A.  McCabe,  "  The  Standard  Rate  in  American  Trade 
Unions,"  in  Johns  Hopkins  University  Studies,  ser.  xxx,  no.  2,  p.  63. 


347]       HIRING   AND    COMPENSATION    OF   THE    HELPER  75 

union  scale  for  their  payment.  Since  the  contractors  or 
heads  of  the  various  teams  are  practically  compelled  to  have 
help,  in  times  of  general  activity  when  labor  is  scarce  the 
helpers  are  likely  to  force  from  their  employers  a  higher 
rate  than  provided  for  in  the  union  scale.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  times  are  dull  and  help  is  plentiful,  the  journeymen 
contractors  will  be  inclined  to  take  advantage  of  their  supe- 
rior bargaining  power,  and  will  pay  helpers  less  than  is  pro- 
vided for  by  the  union.  With  helpers  as  members  of  the 
union,  this  violation  of  the  union  scale  is  checked  only  as  far 
as  helpers  refuse  to  break  the  laws  of  their  organization. 
With  so  many  employers,  competition  is  sure  to  produce 
variable  and  non-uniform  wages  for  helpers.  Especially  is 
this  true  since  evasion  is  difficult  of  detection,  being  known 
only  to  the  two  parties  to  the  wage  contract.  When  the 
helper  is  paid  from  the  office  such  evasion  is  made  more 
difficult.  The  rate  of  pay  for  all  helpers  is  inserted  in  the 
wage  scale,  and  the  only  way  of  violating  it  is  by  rebate  paid 
to  the  head  of  a  team  or  by  additional  wages  paid  to,  the 
helper. 

While  the  union  favors  the  payment  of  all  helpers  by  the 
firm,  it  does  not  favor  the  hiring  of  the  helpers  by  the  firm. 
For  years  there  has  been  a  clause  in  the  national  constitu- 
tion providing  that  "  all  men  are  to  have  the  privilege  of 
hiring  their  own  helpers  without  dictation  from  the  man- 
agement."^^ Since  each  workman  is  in  close  personal  con- 
tact with  his  helpers,  and  since  each  workman  is  responsible 
for  the  work  done  by  the  team  of  which  he  is  the  head,  the 
union  deems  it  advisable  to  give  every  man  the  privilege  of 
selecting  his  own  assistants.  This  plan  of  allowing  the  men 
to  choose  their  own  helpers  gives  the  journeymen  a  strong 
leverage  for  drawing  helpers  into  the  union  and  forcing  them 
to  accept  the  wage  rate  provided  for  helpers. 

Another  union  which  has  taken  an  active  stand  against 
the  payment  of  helpers  by  the  journeymen  is  the  Glass  Bottle 
Blowers'  Association.     One  of  the  principal  questions  be- 

15  Constitution,  1912,  art.  xvii,  sec.  21. 


"J^  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS        [348 

fore  the  first  convention  of  Glass  Bottle  Blowers  in  1856 
concerned  the  new  method  of  work  then  being  introduced, 
namely,  the  system  of  having  blowers  hire  their  own  helpers. 
This  practice  was  condemned  as  an  infringement  upon  the 
apprentice  system,  and  the  convention  passed  a  rule  that 
no  blower  should  employ  a  helper  for  less  than  the  standard 
rate  of  wages. ^^  Two  years  later  the  convention  adopted 
the  further  resolution:  "We  will  not  work  in  any  factory 
with  anyone  who  has  a  molder  or  finisher  or  an  assistant  in 
making  bottles  or  vials  or  for  other  purposes  than  gathering 
glass,  except  such  assistant  be  a  regular  journeyman  or 
apprentice  to  the  business."^'^  This  policy  prevailed,  and 
it  has  been  customary  for  a  long  time  for  the  helpers  in 
bottle  factories  to  be  paid  by  the  manufacturers. 

The  Window  Glass  Workers  have  also  gone  on  record  as 
opposed  to  the  payment  of  helpers  by  journeymen.  The  by- 
laws of  1908  provide  that  "no  flattener  shall  be  allowed  to 
pay  any  part  of  layer-out's  wages,  or  any  help  that  may 
be  employed  about  the  flattening  house."^®  At  the  con- 
vention of  this  same  year  the  following  resolution  was 
adopted :  "  That  it  be  the  sense  of  this  convention  that  the 
firms  should  pay  the  snappers'  wages."  The  manufacturers 
appear  to  have  accepted  this  rule  with  little  dissent. ^^ 

In  striking  contrast  with  the  unions  above  discussed,  the 
United  Brotherhood  of  Operative  Potters  has  never  taken  a 
positive  stand  against  the  hiring  and  the  paying  of  helpers 
by  the  journeymen.  For  example,  the  journeyman  jigger- 
man  hires  and  pays  his  batter-out,  his  mold-runner,  and  his 
finisher.  This  system  prevails  universally  in  the  pottery  in- 
dustry, and  though  there  has  been  no  serious  opposition  to  it, 
the  Brotherhood  of  Operative  Potters  in  1912  proposed  to 
the  Western  Manufacturers'  Association  that  contract  labor 
should  be  aboHshed  in  all  branches  of  the  trade.^** 

To  the  journeyman  potter  the  most  unsatisfactory  phase 

I*'  Bulletin,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor,  no.  6t,  November,  1906,  p.  749. 

I'Ibid.,  p.  750. 

^^  Constitution  and  By-laws,  1908,  art.  xvii,  sec.  44. 

^^  Joint  Scale  of  Wages,  November,  1903,  to  June,  1904,  sec.  25. 

20  Bulletin,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor,  no.  (i-j,  November,  1906,  p.  751. 


349]       HIRING   AND    COMPENSATION    OF   THE    HELPER  // 

of  the  system  of  contract  work  is  that  a  standard  wage  for 
helpers  has  not  proved  successful.  The  helpers  refuse  to 
join  the  union  of  the  journeymen  employers  and  are  there- 
fore under  no  obligations  to  accept  a  standard  rate  of  pay 
determined  by  the  union.  The  helpers  are  always  ready  to 
higgle  for  higher  wages;  and  since  journeymen  must  have 
helpers  to  carry  on  their  work  profitably,  they  too  become 
higglers.  As  a  result  the  wage  scale  for  helpers  is  continu- 
ally violated  and  the  journeymen's  wages  are  uncertain  in 
amount. 

That  the  hiring  of  helpers  by  journeymen  has  not  caused 
as  much  dissatisfaction  among  the  potters  as  in  some  other 
trades  is  doubtless  because  pottery  factories  are  so  localized 
that  they  are  well  under  union  control  and  because  the 
nature  of  the  industry  is  such  that  there  is  an  exact  division 
of  work.  This  fixes  definitely  the  number  of  helpers  to  be 
employed,  and  prevents  the  gradual  transfer  of  the  journey- 
men's work  to  the  helpers.  Moreover,  the  growth  of  pot- 
teries in  the  United  States  has  been  rapid,  and  the  large 
number  of  learners  has  not  tended  in  the  same  degree  to 
lower  wages. 


CHAPTER    III 
The  Organization  of  the  Helper 

Labor  organizations  in  the  United  States  have  been 
formed  largely  in  accordance  with  the  theory  that  trade 
rather  than  industrial  lines  should  determine  the  boundaries 
of  a  union.  Following  out  this  pohcy  of  having  only  work- 
men of  like  kind  in  an  organization,  it  was  until  recently 
the  common  practice  for  those  craftsmen  considered  masters 
of  all  the  work  of  a  trade  to  exclude  from  their  organiza- 
tion all  auxiliary  workmen. 

This  practice  of  skilled  workmen  excluding  from  their 
organizations  unskilled  and  semi-skilled  co-workers  has 
been  defended  chiefly  on  the  ground  that  only  in  this  way 
could  the  welfare  of  the  trade  be  assured.  Since  the 
interests  of  those  engaged  in  a  single  trade  but  at  different 
grades  of  work  are  not  always  identical  but  are  frequently 
conflicting,  it  has  been  contended  that  an  organization  made 
up  of  both  journeymen  and  helpers  would  be  subject  to 
frequent  dissensions,  enabling  the  employers  to  play  one 
class  of  workmen  against  another,  to  the  detriment  of  the 
union.  This  argument  is  not  without  force.  Internal  dis- 
sensions might  arise  over  the  passage  of  union  rules  and 
regulations,  or  over  collective  bargaining  with  the  em- 
ployers. For  instance,  in  determining  what  wages  shall 
be  demanded  for  union  workmen,  both  journeymen  and 
helpers,  it  is  quite  probable  that  there  would  be  no  con- 
sensus of  opinion  as  to  the  difference  which  should  exist 
between  the  wages  of  the  mechanic  and  those  of  his  helper. 
When  an  agreement  is  being  made  with  employers,  this 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  relative  wages  of  the  skilled 
and  the  unskilled  classes  might  be  a  source  of  contention 
which  would  cause  disruption  of  the  union.     The  president 

78 


35  l]  THE   ORGANIZATION    OF   THE    HELPER  79 

of  the  Tile  Layers  realized  the  difficulties  which  face  any 
union  composed  of  both  helpers  and  journeymen  when  he 
said:  "By  the  acquisition  of  the  helpers  the  international 
union  faces  the  problem  of  legislating  virtually  for  two 
trades  under  one  jurisdiction."^ 

In  some  trades  the  policy  of  the  skilled  craftsmen  of 
allowing  as  little  work  as  possible  to  be  done  by  auxiliary 
workmen  and  of  opposing  any  advance  on  the  part  of  such 
workmen  may  have  had  influence  in  determining  the  policy 
of  craftsmen  in  excluding  helpers  from  their  organization. 
Obviously,  it  is  inconsistent  for  journeymen  to  oppose  both 
the  employment  and  the  promotion  of  helpers  and  at  the 
same  time  to  admit  them  to  an  organization  which  is  sup- 
posed to  seek  impartially  the  welfare  of  all  its  members. 
The  preamble  to  the  constitution  of  the  United  Association 
of  Journeymen  Plumbers,  Gas  Fitters,  Steam  Fitters  and 
Steam  Fitters'  Helpers  asserts  that  "  the  aspirations  of  this 
Association  are  to  construct  an  organization  which  shall 
subserve  the  interests  of  all  its  members."  In  view  of  this 
statement  and  of  the  fact  that  the  plumbers'  union  has  been 
so  strenuously  opposed  to  the  employment  and,  where  em- 
ployed, to  the  promotion  of  helpers,  it  would  be  surprising  if 
this  same  union  should  provide  for  the  organization  of  the 
helpers  in  the  trade. 

Craft  pride,  together  with  the  belief  that  recognition  of 
the  helpers  as  members  would  impair  a  vested  right,  was  no 
doubt  of  considerable  force  in  causing  skilled  artisans  of 
many  unions  to  refuse  their  less  skilled  associates  admission 
into  their  organizations.  Evidence  of  this  can  be  found  in 
the  convention  proceedings  of  almost  any  union  in  which 
there  has  been  an  attempt  to  provide  for  the  organization  of 
auxiliary  workmen.  For  instance,  when  the  Machinists 
were  contemplating  a  change  in  their  constitution  so  as  to 
make  handymen  eligible  for  membership,  there  were  many 
objections,  some  of  which  were  wholly  the  result  of  craft 
pride.     One  delegate  said:  "If  you  are  in  favor  of  taking 

1  Proceedings,  1903,  P-  I7- 


8o  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [352 

in  the  handyman  you  must  remember  that  the  general  feel- 
ing in  our  organization  is  opposed  to  being  put  on  an  equal 
basis  with  the  handyman."-  Another  said :  "  We  do  not 
want  to  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  we  belong  to  the  Inter- 
national Association  of  Machinists,  not  of  handymen.  If 
we  take  in  these  men  we  will  have  to  change  our  name  to 
the  International  Association  of  Machinists  and  Handy- 
men.  "* 

At  this  point  it  is  important  to  note  the  policy  of  the 
American  Federation  of  Labor  with  respect  to  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  helper.  Secretary  Morrison,  in  answer  to  an 
inquiry  as  to  the  principles  which  guide  the  Federation  in 
deciding  whether  helpers  shall  have  a  national  organization 
independent  of  the  journeymen's  unions,  replied :  "  It  de- 
pends wholly  on  the  judgment  as  to  what  relationship  will 
be  most  advantageous  to  all  concerned.  As  you  are  aware, 
the  helper  is  closely  related  to  the  journeyman.  One  of  the 
objects  of  the  Federation  is  to  bring  the  members  of  the 
various  crafts  and  callings  into  the  closest  possible  relation- 
ship for  mutual  co-operation.  Before  the  system  of  special- 
ization was  developed  to  such  a  high  degree  as  prevails  in 
modern  industry,  the  journeymen  of  the  various  trades  were 
all-around  mechanics,  and  there  was  a  wide  gulf  between 
the  labor  of  the  journeymen  and  the  labor  of  the  helper. 
This  placed  them  in  distinct  classes.  The  development  of 
specialization  has  frittered  the  skill  of  a  mechanic  in  the 
all-around  sense;  in  other  words,  in  the  present  system,  a 
workman  is  trained  in  a  certain  branch  of  the  trade  and 
does  not  become  skilled  in  all  of  its  branches.  This 
specialization  requires  a  much  shorter  apprenticeship  and 
the  helper  can  be  more  readily  fitted  to  take  up  the  work 
and,  hence,  he  is  more  nearly  a  competitor  than  was  the 
case  under  the  former  conditions.  This  transition  in  the 
work  has  brought  the  journeymen  and  the  helper  into  closer 
relationship  and  the  action  of  the  different  national  organi- 

2  Machinists'  Monthly  Journal,  July,  1903,  p.  588. 

3  Ibid.,  p.  587. 


353]  THE   ORGANIZATION    OF   THE    HELPER  8 1 

zations  in  organizing  their  helpers  under  their  jurisdiction 
is  a  result  of  this  condition.  An  International  organization 
in  a  trade  is  recognized  by  the  A.  F.  of  L.  as  having  entire 
jurisdiction  over  that  trade.  The  helper  of  a  trade  belongs 
to  a  trade,  and  consequently  any  claim  of  an  International 
union  to  the  helper  in  a  trade  over  which  it  has  jurisdiction 
must  have  a  prior  recognition."* 

This  lengthy  quotation  illustrates  the  striking  contrast 
between  the  policy  of  most  of  the  early  national  unions  of 
artisans  in  refusing  to  organize  in  conjunction  with  helpers, 
and  the  policy  of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor  in 
seeking  to  bring  helpers  and  journeymen  into  a  closer  rela- 
tionship and,  if  possible,  into  the  same  union.  The  signif- 
icance of  these  two  opposing  policies  will  receive  further 
attention.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  here  that  they  have  led  to 
the  two  main  modes  of  organizing  helpers.  One  of  these  is 
to  organize  them  independently  of  the  journeymen,  and  the 
other  is  to  organize  them  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
journeymen's  union. 

There  are  four  classes  of  helpers'  organizations  which 
have  no  connection   with  the  unions   of   skilled   artisans : 

( 1 )  local  unions  entirely  independent  of  any  other  body ; 

(2)  national  organizations  independent  of  the  American 
Federation  of  Labor;  (3)  local  unions  affiliated  directly 
with  the  Federation  of  Labor;  and  (4)  national  organiza- 
tions affiliated  with  the  Federation  of  Labor. 

(i)  Before  the  rapid  growth  of  the  Knights  of  Labor  in 
the  late  seventies  and  the  organization  of  the  American 
Federation  of  Labor  in  1881,  it  was  owing  to  the  refusal 
of  journeymen  to  receive  helpers  into  their  organizations 
that  such  auxiliary  workmen,  if  organized  at  all,  had  no 
connection  with  the  journeymen's  unions.  Little  informa- 
tion concerning  the  organization  of  the  helpers  at  this  early 
period  is  extant,  yet  that  which  does  exist  shows  that  in  cer- 
tain trades  they  were  actually  organizing  themselves  inde- 
pendently  of   the   mechanics'   organizations.     As   early   as 

*  In  letter  to  the  writer. 
6 


82  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [354 

1871  mention  is  found  of  a  union  of  blacksmiths'  helpers  in 
Albany,  New  York.  It  appears  that  this  union  had  been 
in  existence  for  some  time  prior  to  the  above  date  and  was 
desirous  of  corresponding  with  other  helpers,  organized  and 
unorganized,  with  a  view  to  calling  a  national  convention 
in  order  to  organize  a  national  association.^  The  plan  seems 
never  to  have  crystallized,  and  for  the  time  being  black- 
smiths' helpers,  where  organized,  remained  in  independent 
local  unions. 

Another  group  of  helpers  who  early  had  local  unions 
were  the  assistants  of  the  iron  boilers  or  puddlers.  In  1871 
the  puddlers'  helpers  at  New  Albany,  Indiana,  thanked 
helpers  for  financial  assistance  to  the  amount  of  $149,  given 
to  them  during  a  strike.*^  The  fact  that  puddlers'  helpers 
held  meetings,  called  strikes,  and  paid  benefits  indicates 
the  existence  of  some  kind  of  local  organization.  Two 
years  later,  in  1873,  the  puddlers'  helpers  in  Chicago  went 
on  strike  against  the  wishes  of  the  puddlers.  From  the 
report  of  the  president  of  the  United  Sons  of  Vulcan  it  is 
evident  that  these  helpers  had  an  organization  of  their  own.'^ 
Indeed,  though  the  American  Federation  of  Labor  dis- 
courages the  formation  of  such  local  lodges,  helpers  even 
at  the  present  time  often  organize  themselves  into  inde- 
pendent local  unions. 

Helpers  organized  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Federa- 
tion of  Labor  frequently  secede  and  become  independent 
organizations.  The  tendency  of  helpers,  especially  of  un- 
skilled helpers  or  laborers,  to  secede  from  the  Federation 
or  to  form  an  independent  organization  seems  much  greater 
than  is  the  case  with  skilled  workmen.  Secretary  Morrison 
of  the  Federation  attributes  this  to  the  foreign  element 
among  the  helper  class  of  workmen.^  As  a  rule,  the 
foreigners  engaged  in  such  work  are  of  an  emotional  tem- 
perament, and  yield  readily  to  the  persuasive  powers  of 

5  Machinists  and  Blacksmiths'  Journal,  July,  1871,  p.  272. 
^Vulcan  Record,  December  31,   1871,  p.  18. 
''Proceedings,  1873,  p.  11. 
^  In  letter  to  the  writer. 


355]  THE   ORGANIZATION    OF   THE    HELPER  83 

ambitious  persons  who  seek  to  obtain  positions  of  leader- 
ship by  organizing  unaffiliated  unions  or  by  having  those 
secede  which  are  affiliated.  Many  such  local  unions — for 
example,  the  Polish  laborers  in  Toledo  and  the  Polish  and 
Italian  laborers  in  Buffalo — are  composed  exclusively  of 
foreigners. 

In  other  cases,  independent  local  organizations  have  come 
into  existence  because  the  helpers  were  not  satisfied  with 
the  conditions  under  which  they  were  to  be  transferred 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Federation  of  Labor  to  that  of 
the  journeymen's  organizations.  Thus  in  191 1,  when  the 
International  Association  of  Machinists  provided  for  the 
organization  of  helpers  under  their  jurisdiction,  the  Federa- 
tion of  Labor  transferred  the  local  unions  of  Machinists' 
Helpers  to  the  International  Association  of  Machinists. 
The  helpers,  who  had  no  hand  in  this  transfer  of  jurisdic- 
tion and  who  were  not  on  the  whole  pleased  with  the  status 
they  were  to  have  under  the  Machinists,  preferred  in  many 
instances  to  form  independent  local  bodies  rather  than  to 
become  attached  to  the  Machinists.'' 

It  is  claimed  that  low  dues  have  had  considerable  in- 
fluence in  inclining  helpers  to  independent  rather  than  to 
affiliated  unions.  Auxiliary  workmen,  especially  the  re- 
mote helpers,  are  often  a  shifting  class,  and  do  not  see  that 
they  are  benefited  by  a  strong  treasury.  Speaking  of  the 
independent  local  unions  of  hod-carriers  and  building 
laborers  of  New  York,  the  president  of  the  International 
Union  of  Hod  Carriers  and  Building  Laborers  said  that 
these  workmen  could  be  persuaded  to  come  into  the  Inter- 
national Union  but  for  the  extremely  low  dues  which  they 
pay  in  the  independent  union.^" 

(2)  Though  the  blacksmiths'  helpers  in  1871  and  the 
puddlers'  helpers  in  1873  made  efforts  to  form  national 
organizations,    their    plans    never    materialized,    and     all 

9  Interview  with  the  president  of  the  International  Association  of 

Machinists. 

Inofficial  Journal  [Hod  Carriers  and  Building  Laborers],  April, 
1907,  p.  5- 


84  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS         [356 

national  organizations  of  helpers  independent  of  the  Ameri- 
can Federation  have  come  into  existence  since  the  formation 
of  the  Federation  of  Labor  and  represent  the  results  of  some 
dissatisfaction  with  the  Federation.  According  to  a  writer 
in  the  official  journal  of  the  International  Hod  Carriers  and 
Building  Laborers'  Union  of  America,  "the  first  laborers' 
union  organized  in  America  as  an  international  union  was 
established  in  the  State  of  Massachusetts  some  eighteen  or 
twenty  years  ago."^^  Since  that  time  a  number  of  inde- 
pendent national  unions  of  building  laborers  have  been 
formed,  prominent  among  which  have  been  the  International 
Laborers'  Union,  with  headquarters  at  Dayton,  Ohio,  and 
the  International  Building  Laborers'  Protective  Union  of 
Lowell,  Massachusetts. 

Independent  unions  of  laborers  or  helpers,  whether  local 
or  national,  as  a  rule  have  not  prospered.  Their  weakness 
is  traceable  to  several  causes.  In  the  first  place,  helpers 
are  for  the  most  part  either  boys  or  second-rate  men,  neither 
of  whom  possess  executive  ability  sufficient  to  guide  a  union 
with  any  degree  of  success.  Taking  advantage  of  this  lack 
of  leaders  among  the  laborers,  demagogues  having  at  heart 
their  own  welfare  rather  than  that  of  the  workmen  gain 
control  of  the  unions  and  exploit  them  at  their  will.^^ 

In  the  second  place,  the  ephemeral  character  of  inde- 
pendent unions  of  auxiliary  workmen  is  accentuated  by  the 
obstacles  thrown  in  the  way  of  permanent  organization  by 
the  American  Federation  of  Labor  and  the  unions  affiliated 
with  it,  which  wage  unceasing  warfare  against  the  organi- 
zation and  existence  of  such  unions.  Dr.  N.  R.  Whitney, 
who  has  made  a  careful  study  of  the  contests  between  the 
affiliated  and  the  independent  organizations,  says :  "  A  great 
deal  of  time  and  attention  has  been  expended  during  the 
past  few  years  by  the  American  Federation  of  Labor  and 
the  Building  Trades  Department  in  an  effort  to  bring  about 

11  September,  1906,  p.  5. 

^-  See,  for  instance.  Official  Journal  of  the  International  Hod 
Carriers  and  Building  Laborers'  Union  of  America,  July,  1906, 
pp.  7-8. 


357]  THE   ORGANIZATION    OF   THE    HELPER  85 

an  effective  national  union  among  the  hod  carriers  and 
building  laborers.  Many  dual  local  unions  existed  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  country,  some  of  which  had  never  been  part 
of  the  national  union,  while  others  had  seceded  from  it. 
The  Federation  used  its  influence  to  force  all  of  these  local 
unions  to  affiliate  with  the  Hod  Carriers,  and  considerable 
progress  has  been  made  toward  the  accomplishment  of  this 
purpose."^^ 

(3)  Since  the  organization  of  the  American  Federation 
of  Labor,  local  unions  of  helpers  affiliated  with  this  body 
have  been  numerous.  The  Federation  has  been  especially 
active  in  organizing  those  workmen  whose  organization  is 
not  provided  for  by  the  national  unions  having  jurisdiction 
over  the  trades  in  which  such  workmen  are  employed. 
Whenever  there  are  indications  that  the  helpers  in  a  trade 
or  in  a  group  of  allied  trades  in  a  certain  locality  can  main- 
tain a  lodge,  an  organizer  seeks  to  bring  them  together, 
under  a  charter  granted  by  the  Federation,  either  into  a 
federal  labor  union  or  a  helpers'  union  representing  a  par- 
ticular trade.  A  local  union  thus  chartered  may  subse- 
quently be  disposed  of  in  any  one  of  the  following  ways: 
It  may  be  transferred  to  the  jurisdiction  of  some  existing 
national  union ;  a  number  of  such  affiliated  local  unions  may 
be  combined  into  a  national  organization,  chartered  by  the 
Federation ;  or  it  may  remain  directly  affiliated  with  the 
Federation  under  the  charter  originally  granted  to  it. 

Whenever  a  national  union  of  journeymen  seeks  to  bring 
under  its  jurisdiction  its  helpers,  who  have  been  hitherto 
excluded,  it  is  the  policy  of  the  American  Federation  of 
Labor  to  sever  direct  connection  with  any  local  union  of 
such  workmen.  Thus  the  boiler  makers'  helpers  in  1900 
and  the  machinists'  helpers  in  1911  were  transferred  from 
the  American  Federation  of  Labor  to  the  national  unions 
of  the  above-mentioned  trades. 

The  American  Federation  of  Labor  docs  not  relinquish 


" "  Jurisdiction  in   American  Building-Trades  Unions,"  in  Johns 
Hopkins  Studies,  ser.  xxxii,  no.  i,  p.  76. 


86  THE    HELPER   AND    AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [358 

its  right  to  organize  helpers  under  its  own  jurisdiction 
unless  the  national  unions  with  which  such  local  unions  are 
affiliated  have  made  provision  for  organizing  the  helpers  of 
their  respective  trades  as  members  of  the  international 
organizations.  In  1903  when  the  International  Association 
of  Machinists  was  discussing  the  question  of  organizing  the 
machinists'  helpers  into  an  affiliated  association,  Delegate 
Keegan  said :  "  On  the  auxiliary  question  we  have  just  had 
a  little  experience  previous  to  coming  to  this  convention. 
An  organizer  of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor  floated 
into  the  town,  Altoona,  where  I  come  from.  He  organized 
a  Federated  Labor  Lodge  and  took  in  what  we  call  the 
handyman,  and  everything  went  well  enough  for  six  months 
or  a  year.  Then  our  association  said,  '  These  people  belong 
to  us,'  and  made  protest  to  the  International  President  to 
maintain  our  position.  The  president  sent  me  down  there 
and  I  found  it  was  harder  to  get  them  into  our  organiza- 
tion after  they  had  joined  the  American  Federation  of 
Labor  than  if  they  had  never  been  in  any.  The  handyman 
and  even  the  machinists  preferred  to  stay  in  the  A.  F.  L. 
because  they  could  get  in  for  fifty  cents,  whereas  they  would 
have  to  pay  us  three  dollars."^* 

Whether  true  or  not,  the  idea  prevailed  among  the  ma- 
chinists at  that  time  that  the  American  Federation  of  Labor 
would  not  yield  its  jurisdiction  over  helpers  unless  the 
Machinists  took  them  in  as  members  on  an  equal  footing 
with  the  journeymen.  For  instance.  Delegate  Sullivan  said: 
"  You  are  talking  about  an  auxiliary.  You  will  then  have 
the  greatest  fight  on  your  hands  you  ever  had.  You  will 
mix  in  with  the  American  Federation  of  Labor.  They  have 
a  right  under  their  charter  to  all  those  handymen  but  if  you 
will  put  them  into  your  organization  on  an  equal  basis  you 
will  overcome  this."^" 

If  there  is  a  clear  line  of  cleavage  between  the  work  of  a 
mechanic  and  his  helper,  with  little  probability  of  transition 

1*  Proceedings,  1903,  p.  589. 
15  Ibid.,  p.  588. 


359]  THE   ORGANIZATION    OF   THE    HELPER  8/ 

from  the  work  of  one  to  that  of  the  other,  the  Federation  of 
Labor  does  not  oppose  the  organization  of  helpers  into  a 
separate  union.  Extreme  caution  on  the  part  of  the  Feder- 
ation becomes  necessary  at  this  point  in  order  to  avoid  juris- 
dictional disputes.  There  is  continual  strife  between  cer- 
tain trades  because  of  such  disputes,  and  certainly  conten- 
tions of  this  character  between  two  unions  whose  members 
work  hand  to  hand  at  all  times  would  be  much  greater  than 
between  two  unions  with  fairly  well  defined  trade  lines. 
For  instance,  if  the  blacksmiths'  helpers  in  1903  had  been 
organized,  as  some  suggested,  into  a  national  union,  char- 
tered by  the  Federation  of  Labor,  it  is  highly  probable  that 
there  would  have  been  constant  friction  between  the  black- 
smiths and  the  helpers.  Every  introduction  of  a  new  piece 
of  machinery  or  of  a  new  process  would  be  the  occasion 
for  a  redistribution  of  work  between  the  two  national 
bodies. 

(4)  Secretary  Morrison  of  the  American  Federation 
of  Labor  states^*'  that  the  Federation  had  never  refused  a 
charter  to  helpers  desiring  an  international  union  of  their 
own.  But  the  fact  that  low-grade  helpers,  such  as  the 
building  laborers  and  the  foundry  employees,  have  been 
organized  into  national  unions  while  helpers  of  a  far  higher 
type,  as  the  machinists',  the  blacksmiths',  and  the  boiler 
makers'  helpers,  have  not  been  organized  into  a  national 
union,  suggests  that  the  Federation  has  not  given  the  same 
encouragement  to  all  helpers. 

The  two  national  unions  which  have  been  chartered  by  the 
Federation  are  the  International  Hod  Carriers  and  Build- 
ing Laborers'  Union  of  America  and  the  International 
Brotherhood  of  Foundry  Employees.  The  important  fact 
to  be  noted  in  connection  with  these  organizations,  espe- 
cially the  former,  is  that  trade  lines  are  not  observed 
in  their  formation.  Inasmuch  as  laborers  change  so 
rapidly  from  one  trade  to  another,  it  is  more  satisfactory  to 
group  those  in  closely  allied  trades  into  one  body.     This 

16  In  letter  to  the  writer. 


88  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS        [360 

arrangement  avoids  the  frequent  changes  in  membership 
which  would  be  necessary  were  the  laborers  organized  ac- 
cording to  the  trades,  and  it  makes  the  union  more  stable. 
As  Secretary  Morrison  says :  "  The  helpers  in  the  Building 
trades  have  organized  close  together  because  of  their  close 
relationship  in  the  work  and  the  advantage  of  this  form  of 
organization.  If  the  laborers  of  the  various  crafts  in  the 
building  industry  were  divided,  you  can  readily  realize  that 
it  would  bring  about  the  formation  of  several  organizations 
instead  of  the  present  concrete  organization  that  now  exists 
among  them."^^ 

An  important  phase  of  the  matter,  whether  deliberately 
planned  by  the  Federation  or  not,  is  the  fact  that  by  thus 
organizing  building  laborers  in  a  general  labor  union  there 
is  no  danger  of  serious  controversies  with  a  building-trade 
union.  Being  a  complex  body  of  laborers  from  different 
trades,  other  matters  than  jurisdictional  disputes  engage 
their  attention.  Moreover,  this  form  of  organization  gives 
a  union  jurisdiction  over  certain  classes  rather  than  over 
any  specific  part  of  a  trade.  The  craft  unions  are  thus  left 
in  undisputed  possession  of  their  respective  trades.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  helpers  in  a  trade,  especially  the  more 
skilled  ones,  were  given  a  national  charter,  there  would,  of 
necessity,  be  a  division  in  jurisdiction  between  journeymen 
and  helpers,  with  a  likelihood  of  endless  jurisdictional 
disputes. 

The  policy  of  the  journeymen  in  certain  trades  in  not  tak- 
ing helpers  under  their  jurisdiction  or  into  their  organiza- 
tion, and  the  policy  of  the  Federation  in  not  organizing  into 
separate  national  unions  those  helpers  who  tend  to  encroach 
directly  upon  the  work  of  the  mechanics,  have  prevented,  in 
some  instances  for  long  periods,  skilled  helpers  or  semi- 
skilled mechanics  from  organizing  a  national  association  of 
their  own.  Thus  the  unskilled  building  laborers  and  the 
foundry  employees  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  national  associa- 
tions as  early  as  1904,  while  the  helpers  in  the  machine  shops 

1'^  In  letter  to  the  writer. 


361]  THE   ORGANIZATION    OF   THE    HELPER  89 

up  until  1911  were  forced,  if  organized  in  connection  with 
the  Federation,  to  content  themselves  with  local  organiza- 
tion. 

The  older  unions  formerly  gave  little  attention  to  organ- 
izing helpers.  In  recent  years,  however,  unions  composed 
of  skilled  craftsmen  have  with  one  or  two  exceptions  changed 
their  policy  and  have  made  some  provision  for  the  organiza- 
tion of  auxiliary  workmen. 

The  forces  instrumental  in  bringing  about  such  a  change 
may  be  summed  up  as  follows :  ( i )  a  clearer  recognition  of 
the  common  interests  of  mechanics  and  their  helpers;  (2) 
inability  of  journeymen  to  control  the  helpers  as  long  as  the 
helpers  are  unorganized  or  organized  independently  of  the 
journeymen's  organizations;  (3)  an  increasing  division  of 
labor.  It  can  be  readily  seen  that  these  forces  do  not  act 
exclusively  of  one  another.  The  common  interests  of  the 
two  classes  growing  out  of  a  close  association  in  work  and 
an  approaching  equality  in  skill  have  made  it  difficult  for  the 
journeymen  to  control  the  situation  because  the  helpers  have 
become  their  competitors.  Likewise,  division  of  labor  has 
been  the  great  factor  in  breaking  down  the  barrier  of 
skill  between  journeymen  and  helpers  and  has  thus  developed 
an  increasing  community  of  interest  between  the  two  classes. 

(i)  The  common  interest  of  helpers  and  journeymen 
grows  out  of  both  an  intimate,  dependent  association  in  work 
and  like  relation  to  a  common  employer.  A  potter  who  uses 
a  jigger  for  making  dishes  employs  three  assistants — a  batter- 
out,  a  mold  runner,  and  a  finisher.  If  a  jiggerman  lacks 
any  or  all  of  these  assistants,  his  work  is  hampered.  He 
must  either  perform  all  the  duties  connected  with  the  work 
which  falls  within  the  jurisdiction  of  a  jiggerman,  or  com- 
bine with  other  jiggermen  who  are  likewise  short  of  helpers. 
In  the  latter  case  skilled  workmen,  working  at  piece  rates, 
are  forced  to  do  work  which  they  had  expected  to  have 
done  by  helpers,  and  consequently  they  receive  helpers' 
wages  for  it.  In  the  former  case,  the  jiggermen  not  only 
labor  under  this  disadvantage,  but  they  also  lose  nnich  time 


90  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [362 

in  changing  from  one  occupation  to  another.  In  either 
event,  earnings  are  greatly  reduced.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  the  jiggermen  are  kept  from  work  in  any  way,  their  help- 
ers are  left  unemployed.  Doubtless  this  mutual  dependence 
in  work  has  in  many  trades  turned  the  balance  in  favor  of 
united  organization  ;^^  at  least,  union  leaders  who  have 
favored  the  admission  of  helpers  into  journeymen's  unions 
strongly  emphasize  this  point.  Thus,  the  president  of  the 
Amalgamated  Association  of  Iron,  Steel  and  Tin  Workers 
has  stated :  "  This  being  true,  that  is  the  less  skilled  work- 
man must  assist  the  more  skillful  workman  to  enable  him 
to  complete  or  finish  the  work  at  which  both  perform  a  pro- 
portionate amount  of  labor  according  to  the  skill  required ; 
therefore,  I  deem  it  advisable  to  admit  all  that  are  directly 
working  at  jobs  necessary  to  keep  a  train  of  rolls  running 
or  a  furnace  working  that  furnishes  iron  for  a  train  of 
rolls,  otherwise,  there  may  and  can  be  trouble  expected  al- 
most at  any  time  if  that  class  of  labor  is  not  made  eligible  to 
membership. "^^ 

The  second  element  affecting  the  common  interest  of  jour- 
neymen and  their  assistants  is  their  relation  to  a  common 
employer.  Journeymen  and  helpers  have  the  same  hours 
of  work,  the  same  shop  conditions,  sanitary  and  otherwise, 
and  a  common  employer  upon  whom  demands  must  be  made 
for  any  change  in  working  rules  or  for  an  increase  in  wages. 
Responding  to  recent  agitation,  the  slogan  of  many  trade 
unionists  has  become  solidarity,  at  least  to  the  extent  of  com- 
bining all  the  workmen  of  a  single  trade  into  one  body. 
Acting  on  the  principle  that  in  union  there  is  strength, 
many  artisans  have  put  in  the  background  their  former  pol- 
icy of  having  skilled  craftsmen  only  in  their  organization, 
and   now   advocate   the   admission   of   helpers.     Secretary 

1^  Although  the  pottery  industry  furnishes  an  excellent  example 
of  the  common  interests  of  journeymen  and  helpers  growing  out  of 
an  intimate  relation  in  work,  it  should  be  noted  that  the  helpers 
have  not  as  a  rule  availed  themselves  of  the  privilege  of  joining  the 
Brotherhood  of  Potters.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  are  em- 
ployed and  paid  by  the  journeymen. 

19  Proceedings,  1887,  p.  1953. 


363]  THE   ORGANIZATION    OF   THE    HELPER  9 1 

Gilthorpe  of  the  Boiler  Makers  declares:  "As  the  example 
of  organization  throughout  the  world  is  to  consolidate  and 
solidify,  I  would  strongly  urge  the  admission  of  holders  on 
and  helpers  into  this  brotherhood. "-° 

(2)  While  skilled  mechanics  of  broader  views  have  ar- 
gued in  favor  of  the  organization  under  a  single  charter  of 
all  workmen  within  a  trade,  the  chief  reason  why  most 
journeymen  have  come  to  favor  the  organization  of  journey- 
men and  helpers  in  the  same  union  is  that  experience  has 
taught  them  that  it  is  difficult  if  not  impossible  to  control 
the  shops  if  their  helpers,  especially  the  more  skilled,  are 
unorganized  or  are  organized  independently  of  their  more 
skilled  co-workers.  The  plan  of  leaving  helpers  to  look  out 
for  themselves  having  failed  to  bring  about  desired  re- 
sults, the  next  move  has  been  to  organize  them  in  some  re- 
lation to  the  craftsmen  of  the  respective  trades.  That  self- 
regarding  rather  than  benevolent  motives  have  actuated  the 
journeymen  in  this  change  of  policy  appears  not  only  in  the 
expressions  of  various  union  leaders  on  the  subject  and  in 
the  fact  that  helpers  have  not  been  admitted  until  after  re- 
peated attempts  to  control  them  in  other  ways  have  failed, 
but  in  the  order  in  which  the  different  classes  of  helpers 
have  been  admitted  and  in  the  restrictions  upon  the  priv- 
ileges of  helpers  when  admitted. 

One  of  the  commonest  arguments  used  in  persuading 
artisans  to  admit  helpers  into  their  organizations  is  that  such 
a  plan  will  better  enable  the  journeymen  to  control  the  help- 
ers and  thus  eliminate  the  evils  incident  to  their  employment. 
A  few  examples  will  illustrate  this  point.  The  president  of 
the  Iron,  Steel  and  Tin  Workers  said  that,  judging  the 
future  by  the  past,  there  was  trouble  in  store  for  the  associa- 
tion unless  it  should  legislate  so  as  to  have  complete  control 
of  all  men  working  in  and  around  mills. "^  In  advocating 
extension  of  membership,  the  secretary  of  the  Boiler  Makers 
asserts :  "  When  this  brotherhood  has  within  its  fold  all  who 


~°  Journal  of  the  Brotherhood  of  Boiler  Makers,  August  i,  1900, 
P-  235. 

21  Proceedings,  1887,  p.  1953. 


92  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [364 

earn  their  living  at  the  trade,  won't  we  be  better  able  to  con- 
trol all  encroachments  both  numerically  and  financially  by 
reason  of  our  numbers  and  increased  revenues?"--  More 
radical  than  these  expressions  on  the  subject  are  the  words 
of  a  delegate  who  argued  as  follows  in  favor  of  the  taking 
of  handymen  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  machinists :  "  We 
are  only  trying  to  get  the  handy-man  under  our  control,  so 
we  can  put  him  out  of  existence."-^ 

In  considering  the  motives  that  have  influenced  journey- 
men in  admitting  helpers,  it  is  significant  that  the  unions 
making  such  a  change  have  not  done  so  until  after  vain 
efiforts  have  been  made  in  other  ways  to  control  the  helpers. 
For  instance,  the  Blacksmiths,  the  Boiler  Makers,  and  the 
Machinists  tried  in  every  conceivable  manner  to  check  the 
encroachment  of  the  helpers,  both  in  work  and  in  numbers, 
before  reaching  the  conclusion  that  it  is  good  policy  to  have 
the  helpers  connected  with  their  respective  organizations. 

Further  proof  that  the  dominant  motive  influencing  the 
artisan  has  been  a  desire  to  benefit  himself  rather  tha'n  the 
helper  is  the  fact  that  in  those  trades  where  there  are  differ- 
ent grades  of  helpers  those  who  had  been  giving  the  journey- 
men most  trouble  were  admitted  first.  The  handymen  or 
advanced  helpers  were  taken  in  by  the  Machinists  in  1903,^* 
but  not  until  1911-^  were  the  helpers  proper  made  eligible  for 
membership,  while  the  general  helpers  or  laborers  are  still 
unorganized.  Similarly,  the  Iron,  Steel  and  Tin  Workers 
admitted  some  of  their  more  advanced  helpers  into  the  union 
in  1876,-''  but  not  till  1889  did  this  union  open  its  doors  to 
all  men  employed  in  and  about  iron  and  steel  mills.-'  It 
is  difficult  to  believe  that  the  Marble  Workers  have  interested 
themselves  in  organizing  the  helpers  primarily  for  the  bene- 
fit of  the  helper,  because  the  Marble  Workers  persistently 

22  Journal  of  the  Brotherhood  of  Boiler  Makers,  October,  1900, 

PP-  333-334- 

23  Machinists'  Monthly  Journal,  July,  1903,  p.  587- 
2*  Ibid.,  pp.  586-588. 

25  Proceedings,  191 1,  p.  86;  Constitution,  1912,  p.  57. 
2<5  Proceedings,  1877,  p.  50. 
27  Proceedings,  1889,  p.  2686. 


365]  THE   ORGANIZATION   OF   THE    HELPER  93 

refuse  to  allow  their  helpers  any  legal  entrance  to  the  posi- 
tion of  a  journeyman,  and  hence  deny  them  admission  to 
the  journeymen's  local  unions. ^^ 

In  a  preceding  chapter  attention  has  been  called  to  the 
fact  that  helpers  make  it  difficult  for  the  journeymen  in  a 
trade  to  control  the  shops  of  that  trade  because  helpers  act 
as  strike  breakers  and  increase  the  number  of  non-union 
shops.  The  belief  that  the  helpers  are  especially  liable  to 
act  thus  contrary  to  the  will  and  interest  of  the  journeymen 
has  led  many  artisans  to  favor  the  organization  of  journey- 
men and  helpers  in  the  same  national  union.  The  likelihood 
that  helpers  will  act  in  opposition  to  journeymen  when 
organized  apart  from  them  is  well  illustrated  in  a  difficulty 
between  the  puddlers  and  their  helpers  in  Chicago.  When 
the  iron  puddlers  organized  as  the  United  Sons  of  Vulcan, 
only  those  who  were  capable  of  taking  charge  of  a  furnace 
were  ehgible  to  membership.  Trouble  soon  arose  because 
the  helpers  would  not,  or  at  least  did  not,  always  go  out  on 
strike  with  the  puddlers.  The  reason  commonly  ascribed 
for  this  failure  to  give  support  was  that  the  helpers  had  no 
organization  and  no  strike  benefits.^^  At  the  convention  of 
1872  the  president  urged  that  helpers  be  admitted  to  the 
union  in  order  to  overcome  this  difficulty.  But  the  com- 
mittee on  the  good  of  the  order,  instead  of  reporting  favor- 
ably upon  this  proposal,  recommended  that  the  helpers  be 
assessed  for  strike  benefits  one  half  the  amount  assessed 
puddlers,  and  that  in  case  of  a  strike  the  helpers  receive  a 
like  proportion  of  strike  benefits.^"  This  plan  was  adopted, 
and  appears  to  have  worked  successfully.  In  Chicago, 
however,  when  the  helpers  were  called  together  and  the 
above  scheme  was  explained,  they  rejected  the  project  of  the 
puddlers  and  formed  an  association  of  their  own.  Later, 
when  a  new  workman  was  put  on  in  opposition  to  the  wishes 
of  this  organized  body  of  helpers,  a  strike  was  declared. 
The  puddlers  at  great  inconvenience  to  themselves  contin- 

28  The  Marble  Worker,  August,  191 1,  pp.  200-201. 

29  Vulcan  Record,  August,  1872,  p.  23. 

30  Ibid.,  p.  48. 


94  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS         [366 

ued  to  work.  The  helpers,  thus  deprived  of  employment, 
went  to  Knightsville,  Indiana,  and  took  the  places  of  the 
boilers  who  were  on  strike  at  that  time.^^ 

Conflicts  with  helpers  affiliated  directly  with  the  American 
Federation  of  Labor  have  doubtless  had  weight  in  inducing 
national  unions  of  journeymen  to  favor  the  extension  of 
jurisdiction  to  the  helpers  of  their  respective  trades.  This 
is  clearly  seen  in  the  experience  of  the  Blacksmiths.  Many 
appeals  and  inquiries  came  to  the  Blacksmiths  after  the  con- 
vention of  1901  in  regard  to  organizing  the  helpers.  The 
reply  given  was  in  the  nature  of  a  recommendation  to  organ- 
ize the  helpers  and  to  send  to  the  American  Federation  of 
Labor  for  a  charter.  Soon  thirty  or  forty  local  unions  of 
helpers  were  chartered  by  the  Federation.  Then  trouble 
began.  Demands  on  employers  were  made  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  blacksmiths.  Strikes  were  declared,  and  the 
blacksmiths  were  compelled  to  quit  work  or  work  with  non- 
union helpers.  Finally,  it  was  decided  to  submit  to  a  ref- 
erendum vote  the  question  of  admitting  helpers  into  the 
Blacksmiths'  Union.^^ 

(3)  The  recognition  of  the  common  interests  of  helpers 
and  journeymen,  and  more  especially  the  failure  of  journey- 
men to  control  helpers  and  the  shops  in  which  they  work, 
have  been  the  immediate  causes  of  a  change  in  the  policy  of 
unions  of  journeymen  wtih  respect  to  the  organization  of 
helpers.  It  is,  however,  essential  to  note  that  this  common 
interest,  as  w^ell  as  the  inability  of  the  journeymen  to  control 
the  shops,  has  not  remained  constant  during  the  transition 
from  one  policy  to  another.  Changes  in  objective  condi- 
tions, summed  up  in  the  phrases  "  division  of  labor "  or 
"  specialization  in  work,"  have  operated.  In  other  words, 
there  has  been  an  increase  in  the  common  interests  of  me- 
chanics and  helpers,  and  an  increase  in  the  difficulties  in  the 
control  of  the  shops  by  the  journeymen  because  of  a  more 
extended  division  of  labor.  Secretary  Morrison  of  the  Fed- 
eration of  Labor  has  said  that  this  transition  in  work  has 

31  Proceedings,  1873,  pp.  11,  12. 
2-  Proceedings,  1903,  p.  14. 


367]  THE   ORGANIZATION    OF   THE    HELPER  95 

brought  journeymen  and  helpers  into  closer  relations,  and 
the  action  of  the  different  national  organizations  in  organiz- 
ing the  helpers  under  their  jurisdiction  is  a  result  of  this 
condition.  This  change  of  method  in  economic  produc- 
tion has  been  a  remote  rather  than  an  immediate  cause 
of  the  journeymen's  change  of  policy.  A  closer  analysis 
of  the  change  in  economic  production  is  necessary  in  order 
to  understand  just  why  and  how  such  a  change  should 
effect  a  corresponding  change  in  the  theory  and  practice  of 
organizing  the  workmen  in  a  trade. 

In  the  first  place,  the  two  great  evils  incident  to  the  em- 
ployment of  helpers — trade  disintegration  and  an  over- 
crowded trade — are  greatly  intensified  as  the  division  of 
labor  becomes  more  minute.  Where  specialization  in  work 
is  the  rule,  the  system  in  which  an  artisan  learns  'all 
branches  of  a  trade  is  sure  to  decay.  Under  such  conditions, 
the  helper,  provided  he  be  not  handicapped  by  mental  or 
physical  disabilities,  is  practically  certain  to  become  an  effi- 
cient workman  at  the  operation  at  which  he  assists.  The 
result  is  that  soon  a  large  part  of  the  work  of  a  shop  is  done 
by  those  workmen  who  have  never  served  an  apprenticeship 
in  the  full  sense  of  the  word.  In  short,  specialization  in 
trades  and  processes  where  helpers  are  employed  has  trans- 
ferred the  work  of  the  trained,  all-round  mechanic  to  the 
specialist.  With  this  increase  in  the  number  of  helper- 
trained  workmen  and  consequent  decrease  in  the  relative 
number  of  all-round  mechanics,  it  is  evident  that  the  jour- 
neymen must  lose  some  control  formerly  exercised  over  the 
shops.  To  regain  this  control,  they  must  widen  their  union 
so  as  to  include  not  only  those  who  have  become  specialists 
by  serving  as  helpers,  but  also  the  helpers  themselves.  A 
writer  in  the  Blacksmiths'  Journal,  realizing  the  significance 
of  these  changes,  wrote :  "  We  have  made  tools,  formers  and 
machinery,  and  the  boy  and  the  helper  are  using  them  in 
ever  increasing  numbers,  with  a  more  than  corresponding 
decrease  in  blacksmiths  .  .  .  the  apprentice  system  seems 
to  be  becoming  obsolete,  many  corporations  preferring  to 


96  THE    HELPER   AND    AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [368 

advance  helpers  to  run  the  forge  and  the  furnaces.  .  .  .  Un- 
doubtedly this  method  is  come  to  stay  and  we  must  sooner* 
or  later  acknowledge  it  and  organize  ourselves  accordingly. 
In  many  parts  of  the  country  where  our  unions  are  estab- 
lished there  are  very  few  eligible  members  and  it  becomes 
somewhat  burdensome  to  maintain  a  good  working  union 
and  be  strong  enough  to  make  any  demand  and  expect  to  get 
it,  and  then  should  any  trouble  occur,  the  corporations 
can,  would,  and  do  get  along  for  months,  if  necessary,  with 
helpers,  heaters  and  helper-smiths.  This  is  the  weak  point 
in  our  armor  where  we  could  be  easily  defeated  and  our  em- 
ployers understand  this."^^ 

The  efifect  of  increasing  division  of  labor  and  of  the  in- 
troduction of  machinery  upon  the  policy  of  journeymen  with 
respect  to  the  organization  of  the  helper  is  illustrated  by 
the  extension  of  the  boundaries  of  the  International  Asso- 
ciation of  Machinists  to  include  within  its  jurisdiction  all 
employees  of  a  machine  shop  except  unskilled  helpers  or 
laborers.  Within  the  last  two  decades  the  nature  of  the 
work  done  and  the  skill  required  in  a  machine  shop  have  un- 
dergone a  great  change.  Whereas  a  few  years  ago  machin- 
ists' work  consisted  of  a  few  general  processes — turning, 
fitting,  and  setting  up — now  with  the  introduction  of  special- 
ized machinery  and  tools,  machinists'  work  has  come  to  con- 
sist of  specialized  jobs.  With  the  introduction  of  these 
labor-saving  devices  it  is  no  longer  necessary  that  every  man 
in  a  machine  shop  shall  know  how  to  use  efficiently  each  tool 
or  machine  therein.  Nor  is  it  necessary  for  him  to  serve  a 
long  term  of  apprenticeship  in  order  to  operate  a  machine. 
The  result  has  been  that  the  regular  apprentice-trained  ma- 
chinists have  lost  a  large  part  of  the  work  in  the  shops. 

In  1903,  in  order  to  overcome  this  difficulty,  the  president 
of  the  International  Association  of  Machinists  advocated  the 
admission  of  workmen  other  than  journeymen  into  mem- 
bership. He  said :  "  The  difficulty  we  are  constantly  con- 
fronted with  is  to  decide  in  what  consists  machinists'  work. 

33  June,  1901,  p.  13. 


369]  THE   ORGANIZATION   OF   THE    HELPER  97 

For  instance,  in  some  locomotive  shops  machinists  do  steam- 
pipe  work  and  the  building  of  engine  works,  while  in  others 
this  work  is  performed  exclusively  by  the  'handyman.' 
There  should  be  drawn  a  definite  line  so  that  members  of 
our  organization  should  know  their  constitutional  rights,  and 
feel  that  they  will  be  considered  in  the  fulfilment  of  the 
same.  In  my  opinion  we  can  not  completely  solve  this 
problem  until  we  have  taken  entire  control  of  the  machine 
shop,  when  we  will  be  in  a  position  to  make  an  agreement 
covering  the  employment  of  all  who  work  therein."^* 

Though  not  going  as  far  as  advised  by  the  president,  thq 
Machinists  provided  for  the  admission  of  specialized  work- 
men into  the  union.^^  The  jurisdiction  of  the  Machinists 
as  thus  enlarged  included  twenty-five  distinct  classes  of 
workmen.  The  handyman  and  helper  questions  continued 
to  be  the  leading  topics  at  conventions.  Gradually  other 
specialists  such  as  machine  tenders  were  made  eligible  for 
membership.  Finally,  in  1911  arrangements  were  made  for 
the  organization  of  helpers  in  local  unions  chartered  by  the 
International  Association  of  Machinists.^** 

Up  to  this  point  the  discussion  of  the  organization  of  the 
helper  has  centered  about  those  unions  of  artisans  which  in 
their  early  history  refused  to  provide  in  any  way  for  the 
organization  of  their  helpers.  Certain  unions,  however,  have 
pursued  a  different  policy.  The  Mine  Workers,  for  ex- 
ample, from  the  first  were  organized  on  an  industrial  basis 
and  claimed  jurisdiction  over  all  work  about  the  mines.  Cer- 
tain unions  organized  after  the  barrier  between  journeymen 
and  helpers  had  begun  to  disappear  and  after  apprentice  reg- 
ulations had  lost  some  of  their  sanctity  made  provision  at 
the  time  of  their  formation  for  the  organization  of  helpers 
in  some  definite  relation  to  the  journeymen.  The  Electrical 
Workers,  the  Elevator  Constructors,  and  the  Steam  Fitters 

^•^  Quoted  in  Bulletin,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor,  no.  67,  November, 
1906,  p.  689. 
3''  Machinists'  Monthly  Journal,  July,  1903,  pp.  586-589. 
3«  Proceedings,  191 1,  p.  86;  Constitution,  1912,  p.  yj- 

7 


98  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS        [S/O 

were  organized  on  this  basis,  and  have  never  expressed  par- 
ticular dissatisfaction  with  this  pohcy. 

When  an  organized  body  of  mechanics  has  once  decided 
that  it  will  be  advantageous  to  organize  its  helpers,  the  next 
important  considerations  are  the  general  plan  of  organiza- 
tion and  the  status  of  the  helper  in  his  relation  to  the 
journeymen.  Various  plans,  differing  in  detail,  have  been 
tried ;  but  in  the  present  discussion  these  may  be  distin- 
guished as  the  plan  of  having  helpers  and  journeymen  in 
separate  local  unions,  and  the  plan  of  having  them  in  the 
same  local  unions. 

Certain  general  arguments  have  been  advanced  in  favor  of 
each  of  these  plans.  It  is  claimed  by  those  who  favor  the 
plan  of  having  the  journeymen  and  helpers  in  separate  local 
unions  that  the  presence  of  two  or  more  distinct  classes  of 
workmen  in  a  local  union  is  not  conducive  to  harmony  be- 
tween the  different  classes.  Since  there  are  many  matters 
which  concern  a  single  class  of  workmen,  it  is  argued  that 
these  matters  can  be  more  satisfactorily  discussed  when  the 
journeymen  and  the  helpers  meet  in  separate  local  lodges. 
Again,  the  journeymen,  especially  those  in  the  more  skilled 
handicrafts,  look  with  disfavor  upon  the  admission  of  help- 
ers into  their  local  unions,  because  such  a  step  seems  to  them 
to  be  a  complete  breaking  down  of  all  lines  between  the 
skilled  and  the  unskilled  workman. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  claimed  by  those  who  favor  the 
plan  of  having  helpers  and  journeymen  in  the  same  local 
unions  that  as  long  as  the  workmen  in  a  trade  meet  as  dis- 
tinct classes  in  separate  local  bodies  there  will  exist  a  strong 
class  spirit  which  will  manifest  itself  in  friction  between 
the  local  unions,  and  that  local  misunderstandings  will  be 
carried  into  the  national  conventions  where  the  two  classes 
meet  in  a  single  body.  It  is  further  argued  that  many  trivial 
grievances  will  arise  as  long  as  there  are  two  classes  of  local 
organizations  under  the  jurisdiction  of  ^  single  national 
union,  and  that  these  imaginary  wrongs  will  disappear  and 
the  classes  come  to  appreciate  each  other  more  if  thrown 


37 1]  THE   ORGANIZATION    OF   THE    HELPER  99 

together  frequently  in  local  meetings.  Another  argument 
put  forth  by  those  who  favor  the  single  organization  plan 
is  that  it  does  not  result  in  conflicting  demands  upon  em- 
ployers. It  is,  of  course,  admitted  that  in  a  local  union  com- 
posed of  journeymen  and  helpers,  questions  may  arise  con- 
cerning which  these  two  classes  have  opposing  views ;  but 
these  questions  are  threshed  out  in  the  union  meetings. 

The  experiences  of  the  Boiler  Makers  afford  opportunity 
for  an  estimate  of  the  comparative  merits  of  the  two  plans 
of  organization.  In  1900  the  Boiler  Makers  made  provision 
for  taking  helpers  into  the  local  unions  of  boiler  makers,^"^ 
but  in  1 901  it  was  decided  to  withdraw  the  helpers  from 
the  journeymen's  lodges  and  to  form  helpers'  lodges.^^ 
Finally,  in  1912  arrangements  were  made  to  do  away  with 
helpers'  lodges  and  to  take  helpers  again  into  the  journey-; 
men's  local  unions.^^  President  Gilthorpe  of  the  Boiler 
Makers,  when  questioned  as  to  the  reasons  for  this  last 
change,  replied :  "  The  reason  that  we  have  consolidated  the 
helpers  and  the  Boiler  Makers  is  this :  They  are  one  trade 
with  several  branches,  and  we  understood  if  they  were  all 
together  we  could  control  the  trade  better.  Originally  it 
was  the  same  as  today,  all  branches  together.  New  men 
came  into  the  convention  and  the  first  change  was  made,  but 
it  was  never  satisfactory  at  any  time."**' 

The  above  arguments  are  in  the  main  applicable  to  all 
organizations  alike,  and  it  is  difficult  to  tell  just  why  some 
unions  have  chosen  one  of  the  above  plans  and  some  the 
other.  Undoubtedly,  however,  sentimental  forces  have 
been  more  important  factors  in  some  instances  than  in  others 
in  favor  of  separate  local  organizations  for  helpers.  Jour- 
neymen who  in  times  past  opposed  the  employment  or  the 
promotion  of  helpers  and  who  set  much  store  upon  the  skill 
of  their  craft  can  more  easily  be  brought  to  accept  the 
helpers  as  members  of  their  national  unions  than  they  can  to 

3'^  Journal  of  the  Brotherhood  of  Boiler  Makers,  August  i,  1900, 
p.  248. 

3^  Constitution,  1901,  art.  iii,  sec.  i. 

39  Subordinate  Lodge  Constitution,  1912,  art.  iii,  sec.  3. 

^^  In  letter  to  the  writer. 


lOO  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS        [372 

accept  them  as  members  of  the  same  subordinate  lodge.  In 
the  first  case,  helpers  and  journeymen  sit  together  as  mem- 
bers of  the  same  union  at  rare  intervals,  but  in  the  latter 
case  they  must  come  together  as  brother  members  at  each 
meeting  of  the  local  lodge.  The  journeymen  of  the  more 
skilled  handicrafts  rebel  at  thus  putting  themselves  on  what 
they  consider  an  equal  social  plane  with  the  helpers.  The 
plan  of  having  helpers  and  mechanics  in  different  local 
unions  has  accordingly  tended  to  prevail  in  those  trades 
where  the  mechanics  for  a  long  time  opposed  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  helpers.  As  class  pride  has  become  less  marked 
there  has  been  a  growing  sentiment  in  favor  of  the  abolition 
of  separate  local  lodges  for  helpers.  In  the  case  of  the 
Boiler  Makers,  as  has  been  seen,  this  change  in  sentiment  be- 
came great  enough  to  bring  about  positive  action  in  1912.  In 
other  instances,  unions  which  formerly  absolutely  prohibited 
helpers  from  gaining  admission  to  local  journeymen's  unions 
have  modified  their  policy  so  far  as  to  admit  helpers  into  the 
journeymen's  lodges  where  conditions  have  not  been  favor- 
able to  maintaining  a  separate  helpers'  local  union.  For 
instance,  in  191 1  when  an  attempt  was  made  to  incorporate 
such  a  provision  in  the  Machinists'  constitution,  there  was 
such  bitter  opposition  that  the  matter  was  dropped,*^  but  in 
191 3  a  referendum  vote  gave  to  helpers  the  privilege  of  con- 
ditional admission  to  the  journeymen's  lodges."*^  All  unions 
now  organizing  the  helpers  into  separate  local  lodges  make 
similar  provisions  for  organizing  them  with  the  journey- 
men if  the  conditions  are  unfavorable  for  a  separate  local 
union  of  helpers. 

Organization  of  helpers  and  journeymen  in  a  single  body 
has  not  proved  a  cure  for  all  the  evils  suffered  by  the  or- 
ganized journeymen  in  the  employment  of  helpers.  When 
the  helpers  are  unorganized,  friction  over  the  work  and  the 
promotion  of  helpers  is  for  the  most  part  between  the  jour- 
neymen and  the  employers.  When  the  helpers  and  the 
mechanics  of  a  trade  are  organized  within  a  single  national 


4^1  Proceedings,  1911,  pp.  146-147 
*2  Constitution,  1913,  art.  i,  p.  57 


373]  THE   ORGANIZATION   OF   THE    HELPER  lOI 

union,  questions  growing  out  of  the  use  of  helpers  become 
more  distinctly  internal  problems.  One  of  the  purposes  of 
union  journeymen  in  organizing  helpers  in  association  with 
themselves  has  been  to  control  the  encroachments  of  the 
helper  on  the  trade.  Much  friction  has  developed  in  this 
connection  between  journeymen  and  helpers  when  organized 
together.  The  sources  of  difficulty  have  been  in  the  main 
(i)  the  subordination  of  the  helper  to  the  journeyman,  (2) 
wage  scales,  (3)  the  working  of  journeymen  with  non- 
union helpers  and  of  helpers  with  non-union  journeymen, 
(4)  jurisdictional  disputes,  and  (5)  promotion  of  helpers. 

(i)  The  subordination  of  helpers  often  begins  with  the 
issuing  of  a  charter.  It  is  customary  for  the  national 
unions  to  refuse  to  charter  a  local  union  of  helpers  unless 
the  application  therefor  is  first  approved  by  the  local 
union  of  journeymen.  Thus  in  the  constitution  prepared 
for  machinists'  helpers  it  is  stated  that  *'  where  there  are 
sufficient  numbers  of  helpers  employed  to  maintain  a  lodge, 
charters  shall  be  issued  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  local 
or  district  lodge  having  jurisdiction  over  that  locality."*^ 
While  this  requirement  is  designed  in  part  to  prevent  the 
organization  of  lodges  under  unfavorable  conditions,  it  is 
also  intended  to  prevent  the  organization  of  helpers  where 
there  is  lack  of  harmony  between  helpers  and  journeymen 
and  where  such  organization  would  obviously  promote  fra- 
ternal strife. 

In  most  instances  where  a  national  union  is  made  up  of 
both  journeymen's  and  helpers'  local  unions  the  journeymen 
insist  that  the  helpers'  lodges  shall  be  subordinate  in  some 
way  to  their  own.  They  feel  that  since  the  helpers  are 
under  the  control  of  the  journeymen  while  at  work,  they 
should  likewise  be  under  their  control  in  the  organization  of 
which  both  constitute  a  part.  They  also  feel  that  since  the 
journeymen  are  superior  to  helpers  in  experience  and  posi- 
tion, the  mechanics  should  be  allowed  the  control  in  matters 


*3  Constitution  of  Machinists'  Helpers  Organizations,  art.  ii,  p.  57. 


102  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [374 

of  common  concern  to  mechanics  and  helpers,  at  least  in 
cases  of  last  resort. 

Subordination  of  helpers  is  brought  about  in  various  ways. 
In  some  cases  control  by  the  journeymen  is  absolute,  and 
in  other  cases  the  helpers  are  restrained  from  independent 
action  on  important  questions  only.  For  instance,  the  Tile 
Layers  in  1904  passed  a  resolution  that  tile  layers'  helpers 
should  submit  all  demands  to  the  tile  layers'  local  unions  in 
their  respective  cities.**  The  Machinists'  constitution  states 
that  "no  local  of  helpers  shall  be  permitted  to  become  in- 
volved in  a  strike  without  obtaining  the  sanction  of  the 
journeymen's  local  or  district  lodge  under  whose  jurisdic- 
tion it  is  working  and  the  Grand  Lodge."*^  In  still  other 
cases  subordination  is  brought  about  through  the  procedure 
defined  for  settling  disputes  between  the  two  local  unions. 
The  Boiler  Makers  formerly  provided  that  where  a  boiler 
makers'  local  division  and  a  helpers'  local  division  were 
unable  to  agree  upon  terms  of  employment  or  upon  ques- 
tions relating  to  their  mutual  interests,  such  matters  should 
be  referred  to  the  international  president,  whose  decision 
should  be  binding  unless  an  appeal  was  taken  to  the  execu- 
tive council.**^  When  cognizance  is  taken  of  the  fact  that 
the  executive  council  at  that  time  consisted  of  an  inter- 
national president  and  seven  vice-presidents  of  whom  only 
two  were  helpers,*"  it  is  readily  seen  that  the  journeymen 
had  complete  control  over  the  helpers  provided  they  saw  fit 
to  use  the  power  which  the  constitution  conferred  upon  them. 

Whatever  may  be  the  specific  way  in  which  mechanics 
have  kept  or  are  keeping  the  helpers  under  their  control, 
there  is  much  friction  over  this  policy  of  the  journeymen, 
and  the  national  conventions  are  usually  called  upon  to  con- 
sider the  contention  of  the  helpers  for  equal  rights  and 
privileges.  The  International  Printing  Pressmen  and  As- 
sistants have  a  national  board  of  directors  which  is  com- 

**  Proceedings,  1904,  p.  67. 

^^  Constitution  of  Machinists'  Helpers  Organizations,  art.  v,  sec.  2. 

*^  Subordinate  Lodge  Constitution.  1908,  art.  xvi,  sec.  17. 

*^  Constitution,  1908,  art.  i,  sec.  5 ;  art.  iv,  sec.  2. 


375]  THE   ORGANIZATION    OF   THE    HELPER  I03 

posed  of  a  president,  three  vice-presidents,  and  a  secretary- 
treasurer.*^  Until  1900  only  one  of  these  offices  was  open 
to  the  assistant  pressmen,*^  much  to  their  dissatisfaction. 
In  the  convention  of  1900  an  amendment  was  offered  which 
provided  that  two  of  the  vice-presidents  should  be  assistant 
pressmen. ^°  After  a  heated  controversy  the  amendment 
passed,  the  assistants  unanimously  voting  for  it,  while  a 
large  majority  of  the  pressmen  opposed  it  even  though  they 
still  retained  a  majority  of  the  board. 

(2)  The  formulation  of  the  wage  scale  is  another  source 
of  frequent  internal  trouble.  Both  helpers  and  journey- 
men overestimate  their  own  relative  skill.  The  helpers  con- 
tend for  less,  the  journeymen  for  more  difference  between 
the  wages  of  the  two  classes.  In  1906  trouble  developed 
between  the  steam  fitters  and  their  helpers  in  Philadelphia 
over  the  wages  to  be  received  by  the  helpers.  The  helpers 
contended  for  thirty  cents  an  hour,  whereas  the  fitters 
claimed  that  the  helpers  had  agreed  to  work  for  twenty- 
four  cents  an  hour.  To  this  the  helpers  replied  that  it  was 
none  of  the  business  of  the  fitters  what  the  helpers  received 
for  their  work.  The  helpers  struck  in  an  effort  to  secure 
their  demands  for  an  increased  wage,  but  the  journeymen 
refused  to  support  their  demands  and  went  to  work  with 
non-union  helpers. ^^  Friction  of  this  kind  is  especially 
liable  to  occur  if  piece  work  prevails  and  if  helpers  are 
paid  by  the  journeymen,  who  receive  from  the  firm  the 
entire  wage  for  turning  out  the  product. 

(3)  A  third  source  of  controversy  between  helpers  and 
mechanics  is  found  when  one  party  or  the  other  works  with 
non-unionists.  As  a  rule  there  is  an  understanding  between 
helpers  and  journeymen  who  are  members  of  the  same 
organization  that  members  of  neither  class  will  work  with 
non-union  workmen.  The  enforcement  of  this  agreement 
depends  largely  upon  a  third  factor,  the  employer.     If  the 

*8  Constitution,  1913,  art.  i,  sec.  i. 

*®  Constitution,  1899,  art.  ii,  sec.  i. 

^^  Proceedings,  1900,  p.  31. 

51  Proceedings,  1906,  pp.  46,  67. 


I04  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN   TRADE   UNIONS        [376 

union  is  strong  in  comparison  with  the  employer,  it  may  be 
carried  out  to  the  letter.  If  the  union  is  too  weak  to  cope 
with  the  employer,  the  agreement  between  helpers  and 
journeymen  is  likely  to  be  broken.  In  such  event  the  group 
that  suffers  is  likely  to  accuse  the  other  of  disloyalty.  The 
extent  of  disputes  of  this  kind  is  indicated  in  the  action  of 
the  Steam  Fitters.  At  the  convention  of  1897  a  committee 
was  appointed  to  draw  up  a  resolution  which  would  tend 
to  create  a  more  harmonious  feeling  between  the  fitters  and 
the  helpers.  The  chief  recommendation  of  this  committee 
was  that  the  clause  of  the  constitution  with  reference  to 
fining  fitters  for  working  with  non-union  helpers  and 
helpers  for  working  with  non-union  journeymen  be  strictly 
enforced. ^- 

(4)  Jurisdictional  disputes  between  helpers  and  journey- 
men are  of  two  kinds,  disputes  over  work  and  over  work- 
men. There  is  continual  complaint  in  most  trades  in  which 
helpers  are  employed  that  the  helpers  are  allowed  to  en- 
croach upon  the  work  of  the  journeymen.  When  journey- 
men and  helpers  are  members  of  separate  local  unions  but 
are  under  the  same  national  jurisdiction,  jurisdictional  dis- 
putes of  this  kind  are  likely  to  occur.  Especially  is  this  true 
if  the  use  of  helpers  is  the  result  of  the  advantages  of 
division  of  labor  rather  than  of  physical  necessity.  If  there 
are  two  distinct  classes  of  laborers  in  a  trade,  there  must  be 
some  line  of  division  in  their  work.  This  line  wherever 
it  may  be  drawn  is  more  or  less  arbitrary,  and  consequently 
affords  a  fruitful  source  of  contention  between  journeymen 
and  helpers.  In  1906  President  Corder  of  the  Marble 
Workers  decided  a  dispute  between  Helpers'  Local  Union 
No.  6  and  the  Polishers  and  Bed  Rubbers'  Local  Union  No. 
84.  The  helpers  had  entered  a  protest  because  the  polishers 
were  doing  helpers'  work.^^  The  practice  of  one  class  of 
workmen  doing  work  which,  according  to  union  regulations, 
belongs  to  another  class  of  workmen  is  illustrated  by  the 

52  Proceedings,  1897,  p.  31. 

53  Proceedings,  1906,  p.  5. 


377]  THE   ORGANIZATION    OF   THE    HELPER  IO5 

course  of  the  marble  workers  in  "  doubling  up "  when 
helpers  strike.  This  practice  has  been  denounced  as  "  both 
pernicious  and  perfidious."^* 

Sometimes  jurisdictional  disputes  are  over  both  the  work 
and  the  workmen.  The  essential  points  in  disputes  of  this 
nature  are  seen  in  the  controversies  between  the  assistants 
and  the  pressmen  of  the  International  Printing  Pressmen 
and  Assistants'  Union.  This  union  grants  separate  charters 
to  local  lodges  of  pressmen  and  of  assistants.^^  When  the 
web  press  began  to  supplant  the  flat  bed  press,  it  was 
obvious  that  to  allow  the  unions  of  assistants  jurisdiction 
over  the  assistants  on  the  web  presses  would  give  them  the 
control  over  the  majority  of  the  workmen  in  the  web  press 
rooms.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  all  the  workmen  on  a 
web  press  except  one  or  two  are  assistants  in  the  sense 
that  they  work  under  others  who  have  charge  of  the  press. 
Consequently,  the  local  unions  of  pressmen  began  to  extend 
their  jurisdiction  over  the  assistants  on  the  web  presses. 
The  assistants  objected  to  this  policy,  and  for  years  a  large 
part  of  the  time  at  the  national  conventions  was  taken  up 
with  this  question.  For  instance,  in  1899  the  Franklin 
Association  No.  23  entered  a  protest  because  the  Adams 
Cylinder  and  Press  Printers  No.  51  assumed  jurisdiction 
over  the  web  press  assistants.^®  They  based  their  protests 
"  on  the  grounds  that  the  receipt  of  these  assistants  by  a 
pressmen's  union  is  unconstitutional,  for  they  are,  on  the 
average,  incompetent  pressmen,  and  not  receiving  the  press* 
men's  scale  of  wages,  and  that  in  cases  where  they  are,  as, 
for  instance,  in  New  York,  the  pressmen's  organization 
have  lowered  their  scale  so  as  to  steal  them."  They  further 
claimed  that  "  in  every  city  where  there  is  no  web  press 
assistants'  organization,  they  are  always  affiliated  with  the 
assistants'  union."-"     They  deemed  "the  action  of  No.  51 

54  The  Marble  Worker,  June,  1911,  p.  123. 

55  Charters  are  now  granted  to  various  classes  of  workmen  (Con- 
stitution,  1913,  art.   i). 

5»  Proceedings,  1899,  pp.  45-119. 
57  Ibid.,  p.  46. 


I06  THE    HELPER   AND    AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [3/8 

in  assuming  jurisdiction  over  web  press  assistants  a  flagrant 
violation  of  not  only  the  constitution,  but  of  our  rights."'® 

The  pressmen  justified  the  extension  of  their  jurisdiction 
mainly  by  three  arguments.  In  the  first  place,  competency 
rather  than  the  nature  of  the  position  held  should  determine 
a  man's  eligibility  for  membership  in  the  pressmen's  union. 
The  so-called  assistant  pressmen  were  men  who  had  had 
four  or  more  years'  experience  in  press-rooms  and  were 
competent  pressmen,  though  they  were  working  under 
another  man  who  had  charge  of  the  press.  Then,  the 
attempt  to  distinguish  assistants  from  pressmen  on  the 
basis  of  the  position  held  at  any  given  time  would  be  im- 
practicable. Inasmuch  as  a  man  may  be  in  charge  of  a 
press  one  week  and  the  next  week  hold  a  subordinate  posi- 
tion, the  plan  of  determining  to  what  local  union  he  should 
belong  according  to  the  kind  of  job  he  held  would  mean 
endless  confusion  because  of  the  changing  of  members 
from  the  assistants'  union  to  the  pressmen's  union  and 
vice  versa.  The  true  doctrine  should  be,  once  a  pressman 
always  a  pressman.  Lastly,  the  pressmen's  union  should 
have  jurisdiction  over  all  workmen  in  a  web  press-room, 
otherwise  there  would  be  trouble  because  the  different  local 
lodges  would  have  men  working  on  the  same  presses. 

In  order  to  settle  the  dispute  between  the  pressmen  and 
the  assistants  on  this  point  the  following  resolution  was 
offered :  "  In  accordance  with  the  law  as  laid  down  by  our 
International  constitution  and  by-laws,  the  pressmen  have 
only  jurisdiction  over  pressmen ;  therefore,  be  it  resolved, 
That  that  part  of  the  constitution  of  No.  51  which  applies 
to  a  scale  for  assistant  pressmen  be  stricken  out."'-'  This 
resolution  passed  the  convention,*^"  but  on  reconsideration 
was  lost,^^  and  the  convention  closed  without  any  definite 
action.  Year  after  year  the  contest  over  the  pressmen's 
assistants   waxed   warmer  and   warmer,   completely   over- 


^s  Proceedings,  1899,  p.  46. 

59  Ibid.,  p.  102. 

60  Ibid.,  p.  105. 

61  Ibid.,  pp.  114-I18. 


379]  THE   ORGANIZATION    OF   THE    HELPER  10/ 

shadowing  all  other  questions,  but  remaining  without  final 
settlement. 

At  the  convention  in  1904  an  amendment  to  the  constitu- 
tion was  proposed  by  a  delegate  from  Local  Union  No.  23  of 
New  York  to  the  effect  that  "  fly  boys  "  and  carriers  in  news- 
paper offices  should  be  members  of  the  assistants'  union.^^ 
In  many  localities  these  workmen  were  not  organized  at  all, 
and  the  assistants  urged  their  claims  on  the  ground  that  all 
the  workmen  in  a  press-room  should  be  organized,  and  that 
since  the  fly  boys  and  carriers  were  not  eligible  for  member- 
ship in  the  pressmen's  union,  it  was  the  duty  of  the  feeders 
and  the  assistants  to  organize  them.  The  pressmen  did  not 
claim  that  the  workmen  concerning  whom  there  was  a  dis- 
pute were  capable  of  taking  charge  of  a  press ;  with  this 
exception  the  grounds  on  which  they  opposed  the  resolu- 
tion were  exactly  the  same  as  those  on  which  they  had 
opposed  the  jurisdiction  of  the  assistants'  unions  over  the 
web  press  assistants.  It  was  asserted  that  many  pressmen 
had,  on  account  of  disabiHty,  been  forced  into  low-grade 
work  and  that  it  would  not  be  fair  to  force  them  back 
into  the  assistants'  union.  While  the  majority  of  the  paper 
handlers  were  not  eligible  for  membership  in  the  pressmen's 
union,  it  was  urged  that  such  laborers  ought  to  be  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  pressmen  with  whom  they  worked 
rather  than  under  the  jurisdiction  of  a  body  composed  for 
the  most  part  of  those  who  worked  in  an  altogether  different 
kind  of  press-room.  This  amendment  was  lost  and  the 
struggle  continued. 

At  present  the  international  constitution  provides  that 
"all  members  of  Subordinate  Unions  employed  on  rotary 
webb  presses,  on  book  and  magazine  work,  in  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  local  pressmen's  unions  as  brakemen,  tension  men, 
oilers,  assistants  and  so-called  assistants  shall  identify  them- 
selves with  the  local  assistants'  unions  in  whose  jurisdiction 
they  are  working ;  "*'^  also,  that  "  the  Assistants'  Union  shall 

82  Proceedings,  1899,  p.  19. 

*3  Constitution  and  By-laws,  sec.  39. 


I08  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS        [38O 

have  the  right  to  organize  all  help  working  in  web  press- 
rooms for  whom  the  Pressmen's  Union  have  not  provided 
a  scale."«* 

(5)  A  question  of  even  more  concern  than  jurisdiction 
to  the  mechanics  and  helpers  of  a  trade  who  are  members 
of  the  same  national  body  but  in  different  local  unions  is 
the  promotion  of  the  helper  to  work  known  as  mechanic's 
work  and  his  transfer  from  the  helpers'  local  union  to  that 
of  the  journeymen.  As  previously  stated,  it  appears  incon- 
sistent for  a  national  union  pledged  to  the  welfare  of  all 
its  members  to  organize  helpers  and  at  the  same  time  deny 
them  promotion  when  the  employers  are  willing  to  pay  them 
mechanics'  wages.  In  consequence,  most  unions  have  made 
some  concessions  when  organizing  helpers  by  granting  them 
the  privilege  of  having  all  or  part  of  the  journeymen's  ap- 
prentices come  from  their  ranks,  or  else  have  made  the 
helpers  apprentices  in  the  sense  that  they  recognize  them 
as  learners  of  the  trade. 

In  a  few  instances,  however,  unions  have  organized  the 
helpers  without  any  provision  for  their  future  advancement 
either  in  work  or  in  promotion  to  the  journeymen's  local 
unions.  Thus  in  191 1,  when  the  Machinists  decided  to 
organize  the  machinists'  helpers  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  International  Association  of  Machinists,  it  was  stated 
that  "no  helper  can  be  advanced  in  the  trade  to  the  detri- 
ment of  journeymen  machinists  or  apprentices."  One  of 
the  declared  aims  of  the  Machinists  has  been  "  to  endeavor 
to  secure  the  establishment  of  a  legal  apprenticeship  of  four 
years.""^  By  an  amendment  to  the  Machinists'  constitution 
of  1913  it  was,  however,  provided  that  one  half  of  all 
apprentices  might  be  taken  from  the  ranks  of  the  helpers 
affiliated  with  the  International  Association  of  Machinists.''^ 

6*  Constitution,  1913,  By-laws,  art.  iii,  sec.  3. 

65  Constitution,  191 1,  p.  3. 

66  This  amendment  reads  as  follows :  "  However  a  machinists 
helper,  who  has  been  a  member  of  the  International  Association 
of  Machinists'  Helpers  for  two  years  in  continuous  good  standing 
and  has  worked  as  a  machinists'  helper  for  two  years  in  the  shop 
where  he  desires  to  become  an  apprentice,  and  is  not  more  than 


381]  THE   ORGANIZATION    OF   THE    HELPER  I O9 

At  the  present  time,  all  of  the  unions,  except  the  Marble 
Workers,  which  have  made  provision  for  the  organization 
of  helpers  have  some  arrangement  whereby  there  is  at  least 
a  possibility  that  an  efficient  helper  may  become  a  journeyman. 
In  most  cases  this  possibility  is  so  remote  that  the  helpers 
are  continually  trying  to  have  the  national  unions  adopt  a 
more  liberal  policy.  Indeed,  when  helpers  are  formed  into 
local  unions  of  their  own,  with  opportunities  to  develop 
qualities  of  leadership  and  aggressiveness,  they  are  likely  to 
formulate  schemes  for  removing  those  constitutional  re- 
strictions upon  promotion. 

The  struggle  of  helpers  to  remove  all  restrictions  on  their 
advancement  is  also  illustrated  in  the  history  of  the  Inter- 
national Printing  Pressmen  and  Assistants'  Union.  Up 
until  1903  the  constitution  of  the  Pressmen  and  Assistants 
provided  that  "  no  subordinate  Pressmen's  union  shall  admit 
to  full  membership  any  person  who  has  not  served  an  ap- 
prenticeship of  at  least  four  years  in  a  press  room.  Rigid 
examination  as  to  the  competency  of  applicants  shall  be 
made  by  a  committee  of  the  local  union. "*^^  The  inter- 
national constitution  also  provided  that  apprentices  were  "  to 
be  taken  from  Assistants'  Unions  working  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  International  Printing  Pressmen  and  As- 
sistants' Union, '"^^  but  as  one  apprentice  only  was  to  be 
allowed  for  every  four  journeymen,  the  prospects  for  as- 
sistants to  become  pressmen  were  not  encouraging  to  the 
members  of  the  assistants  and  feeders'  local  unions.  In 
1899,  therefore,  the  Assistants  pleaded  for  the  following 
addition  to  the  above  clause :  "  Said  four  years  in  a  press 
room  as  a  feeder  to  be  considered  as  ample  time  to  cover 
apprentice  laws  entitling  him  to  full  membership  in  press- 
twenty-five  (25)  years  of  age,  may  become  a  machinists'  apprentice 
and  shall  serve  three  years  as  such,  and  be  governed  by  the  same 
laws  and  rules  as  govern  apprentices,  provided  the  number  of  ap- 
prentices taken  from  machinist  helpers  does  not  exceed  at  any  time 
the  number  of  regularly  indentured  apprentices "  (Constitution, 
1913,  p.  57,  art.  i). 

^'^  Constitution,  1898-1903,  art.  xxi,  sec.  4. 

®8  Constitution,  1S98,  art.  xxii,  sec.  i. 


no  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS        [382 

men's  unions  when  he  receives  the  full  scale  of  wages ;  he 
to  have,  at  the  time  of  admission,  a  paid  up  card  of  member- 
ship in  the  feeders  and  helpers'  union."*'^  The  committee 
on  laws  reported  unfavorably  on  the  amendment,  and  their 
report  was  sustained/"  This  was  doubtless  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  pressmen  in  the  convention  outnumbered  the  feeders 
and  helpers  or  assistants. 

It  was  contended  by  the  feeders  and  the  assistants  as  well 
as  by  those  journeymen  who  favored  the  amendment  that 
any  member  of  the  international  union  should  be  allowed 
to  hold  any  position  for  which  he  was  competent,  and  that 
when  he  was  promoted  to  a  pressman's  position  and  re- 
ceived pressmen's  wages  he  should  be  allowed  membership 
in  the  pressmen's  local  union  in  his  locality.  Such  restric- 
tion as  existed  was  declared  to  be  in  favor  of  the  non-union 
assistant  or  feeder,  because  when  a  man  who  belonged  to  no 
union  secured  a  job  as  a  pressman  he  was  at  once  admitted 
to  the  union.  It  was  also  argued  that  such  distinctions  were 
purely  artificial.  A  delegate  asserted :  "  There  is  not  a  man 
in  this  association  can  define  for  me  that  line  of  demarcation 
between  the  gradations  which  exist  between  a  feeder,  an 
apprentice  and  a  pressman. "^^  On  the  other  hand,  the 
pressmen  opposed  the  amendment  on  the  ground  that  a  re- 
striction upon  the  promotion  of  the  helpers  was  necessary 
for  the  protection  of  the  men  who  had  served  their  four 
years'  apprenticeship. 

In  1903  the  constitution  was  changed  so  as  to  permit  local 
pressmen's  unions  to  regulate  the  number  of  apprentices. 
However,  the  struggle  has  continued,  and  it  has  been  by  no 
means  a  local  issue.  The  attempts  of  the  assistants  to  have 
the  national  union  legislate  in  their  behalf  have  not  ceased, 
and  appeals  to  the  international  union  or  to  the  international 
board  of  directors  have  been  numerous.  The  gist  of  these 
local  controversies  and  appeals  can  be  understood  from  the 
following  quotation  from  the  president's  report  in  1903 : — 

•^^  Proceedings,  1899,  p.  69. 

70  Ibid. 

■71  Ibid.,  p.  71. 


383]  THE   ORGANIZATION    OF   THE    HELPER  III 

"  Some  of  the  appeals  and  the  decisions  thereon  will  come 
before  this  convention.  Chief  among  them  is  one  from 
Denver  Pressmen's  Union  No.  40,  appeaHng  from  my  and 
the  former  Board  of  Directors'  decision  that  a  member  of  an 
assistants'  union  who  has  worked  four  years  in  a  press  room 
and  is  given  the  position  of  'Journeyman  Pressman,'  is 
entitled  to  hold  such  position,  even  if  the  Pressmen's  Union 
decide  otherwise,  or  refuse  to  admit  him  to  membership  in 
the  Pressmen's  Union,  under  whose  jurisdiction  he  may  be 
working.  This  appeal  as  I  am  informed  by  No.  40,  is  not 
brought  with  any  spirit  of  narrowness  on  its  part,  they  only 
desiring  to  have  the  Convention  decide  '  whether  it  is  wise 
policy '  on  the  part  of  the  International  to  allow  members 
of  assistants'  union  this  privilege,  even  though  such  assistant 
does  receive  the  scale  of  wages  as  supported  by  the  Press- 
men's Union  in  whose  jurisdiction  he  may  be  working,  and 
his  competency  vouched  for  by  the  Pressman  foreman  of  the 
place  where  such  assistant  may  be  working,  as  a  '  journey- 
man pressman.'  No.  40  further  contends  that  if  such 
methods  are  allowed  by  the  International  it  will  not  be  con- 
ducive to  the  best  interests  of  the  Pressmen's  craft  in  pro- 
ducing skilled  and  competent  'journeyman  pressman'  in 
line  of  succession.  To  which  the  board  in  its  reply  sustain- 
ing its  actions  points  out  the  right  of  all  members  of  the 
I.  P.  P.  and  A.  U.  under  article  XXVII,  Sec.  2  of  its 
International  laws.'^- 

"  The  above  contention  has  been  the  cause  of  several  of  a 
like  nature  during  the  past  year  and  have  been  decided  by 
myself  in  like  manner  as  in  the  case  of  No.  40,  many  of  the 
Pressmen's  Unions  contending  also  that  so  long  as  they  have 
members  out  of  work,  no  assistant  should  be  allowed  the 

■'■2  This  law  reads  as  follows :  "  A  member  of  any  Subordinate 
Union  may  work  at  any  branch  of  the  business;  provided  he  shall 
transfer  his  membership  and  receive  the  consent  from  his  union  and 
from  the  union  in  whose  jurisdiction  he  desires  to  work,  and  that 
he  receives  the  scale  of  wages  of  said  union.  Should  either  dis- 
agree as  to  the  competency  of  said  applicant,  he  shall  be  allovved 
to  work  at  the  branch  of  business  chosen  by  him  pending  a  decision 
of  the  Board  of  Directors." 


112  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN   TRADE   UNIONS        [384 

right  of  advancement.  That  spirit  of  contention  on  the  part 
of  some  Pressmen's  Unions  is  too  narrow  for  the  I.  P.  P. 
and  A.  U.  to  entertain,  but  I  agree  with  No.  40  that  it  is  the 
duty  of  this  Convention  to  decide  in  positive  terms  as  to 
where  the  assistants'  rights  begin  and  '  where  they  end.'  "'^^ 

Two  important  points  are  to  be  noted  in  this  quotation : 
that  the  decision  of  the  board  and  the  president  was  anoma- 
lous in  that  it  allowed  a  workman  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
one  branch  of  a  union  to  do  work  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
another  branch,  and  that  the  president  and  the  board  of 
directors,  of  which  the  majority  were  Pressmen,  favored  a 
broad  liberal  poHcy  toward  the  helper.  It  is  a  significant 
fact  that  in  practically  all  unions  where  helpers  and  journey- 
men are  organized  into  a  single  national  union,  the  officers, 
whether  from  selfish  or  benevolent  motives,  have  advocated 
broader  policies  toward  the  assistants  than  have  the  ma- 
jority of  the  members  of  the  national  unions.  In  many  in- 
stances the  national  leaders  have  championed  measures  de- 
signed to  increase  the  privileges  of  the  helpers  long  before 
the  unions  were  brought  to  accept  them. 

In  the  national  organizations  which  provide  that  journey- 
men and  their  helpers  shall  be  members  of  the  same  local 
lodges  the  subordination  of  helpers  is  brought  about  in  a 
different  manner  than  in  unions  which  have  distinct  local 
lodges  for  helpers  and  journeymen.  A  common  rule  de- 
signed to  keep  the  helpers  under  the  control  of  the  journey- 
men is  to  limit  the  number  of  helpers  allowed  in  a  lodge. 
Thus  the  International  Association  of  Elevator  Constructors 
provides  that  the  number  of  helpers  shall  never  exceed  the 
number  of  mechanics.'^*  In  some  unions  where  this  policy 
is  not  included  in  the  national  laws  the  local  lodges  put 
limitations  upon  the  number  of  helpers  in  a  lodge.  For 
example,  it  is  a  regulation  of  the  local  union  of  Electrical 
Workers  in  Baltimore  that  "  the  number  of  helpers  admitted 

^3  Proceedings,  1903,  p.  369. 

■^^  Constitution  and  By-laws,  1910,  p.  20. 


385]  THE   ORGANIZATION   OF   THE    HELPER  II3 

shall  not  exceed  one  to  each  wireman  in  good  standing  in 
local  No.  28."" 

It  is  likewise  the  policy  of  many  unions  to  see  to  it  that 
the  number  of  helper  delegates  to  national  conventions  shall 
never  exceed  the  number  of  journeyman  delegates.  The 
Elevator  Constructors  provide  that  "  locals  entitled  to  more 
than  one  delegate  may  send  a  helper  as  one."^^  When  this 
is  connected  with  the  rule  that  the  number  of  helpers  in  the 
local  shall  never  exceed  the  number  of  mechanics,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  helpers  have  no  chance  of  getting  control  of 
the  national  convention.  The  jealousy  with  which  journey- 
men guard  their  power  in  the  national  convention  is  illus- 
trated by  the  rejection  of  an  amendment  to  the  constitution 
of  the  Tile  Layers'  Union  offered  in  1903,  that  "where 
local  is  composed  of  layers  and  helpers  together  sending 
more  than  one  delegate  to  the  convention,  one  delegate  shall 
be  a  helper."^'' 

In  unions  which  have  helpers  and  journeymen  in  the  same 
local  lodges,  wage-scale  disagreements,  dissatisfaction  with 
members  and  non-union  members  working  together,  juris- 
dictional disputes,  and  contentions  concerning  the  promotion 
of  the  helper  are  similar  in  character  but  less  tense  in 
degree  than  in  unions  where  the  helpers  and  the  journey- 
men are  in  separate  local  lodges.  The  explanation  is  simple. 
Where  helpers  assemble  in  meetings  under  the  domination 
of  the  mechanics,  they  do  not  have  the  opportunities  for 
launching  movements  designed  for  their  betterment  that 
they  do  when  they  meet  in  associations  of  their  own.  While 
the  helpers  may  express  dissatisfaction  with  various  policies 
of  the  local  of  which  they  are  a  part,  they  do  not  usually 
succeed  in  crystallizing  this  dissatisfaction  so  as  to  bring 
about  any  unified  action  on  their  part.  In  fact,  if  the 
helpers  so  organized  have  grievances,  about  the  only  way 
they  have  of  remedying  them  is  by  open  rebellion,  the  suc- 

'5  Constitution  [no  date],  sec.  57. 

''^  Constitution  and  By-laws,  1910,  art.  ii,  sec.  4. 

■^^  Proceedings,  1903,  p.  43. 


I  14  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS        [386 

cess  of  which  depends  largely  upon  their  strength  and  im- 
portance in  a  trade  as  compared  with  the  mechanics.  Not 
being  a  distinct  unit  of  the  national  organization,  they  have 
no  effective  way  to  bring  local  disputes  before  the  general 
convention  for  settlement.  All  contentions  between  helpers 
and  journeymen  are  thus  local  both  in  character  and  in  the 
manner  of  their  adjustment. 

In  a  few  unions  like  the  Elevator  Constructors  and  the 
Electrical  Workers,  which  recognize  the  helpers  as  learners  of 
their  trades  and  which  have  no  apprentice  system  between  the 
helper  and  journeymanship,  the  difficulties  of  the  combined 
organization  are  much  less  than  in  trades  which  attempt  to 
enforce  apprentice  regulations  by  requiring  the  helper,  if  he 
is  ever  legally  to  become  a  mechanic,  to  pass  through  the 
intermediary  state  or  apprenticeship  period.  Some  unions 
like  the  Mine  Workers,  which  are  industrial  in  their  form 
of  organization,  put  helpers  and  journeymen  on  practically 
an  equal  basis  and  have  no  apprenticeship  regulations.  In 
such  cases,  helper  problems  are  not  present  at  all  or  exist 
in  a  very  modified  form. 


CHAPTER    IV 
The  Helper  and  Trade-Union  Policy 

In  previous  chapters,  union  policies  concerning  the  helper 
have  been  set  forth.  We  turn  now  to  an  estimate  of  these 
policies  from  the  standpoint  of  economic  welfare  and  social 
justice.  These  policies  will  be  considered  in  the  order  pur- 
sued in  the  preceding  chapters :  ( i )  policies  pertaining  to 
the  use  of  the  helper ;  (2)  policies  concerning  the  hiring 
and  compensation  of  the  helper  in  piece-work  trades ;  and 
(3)  policies  having  to  do  with  the  organization  of  the  helper. 
Of  the  policies  of  those  unions  which  do  not  oppose  the  em- 
ployment and  the  promotion  of  helpers  nothing  need  be 
said.  Such  policies  are  negative  rather  than  positive  in 
character,  and  there  are  no  points  at  issue  between  the  em- 
ployers and  the  unions  as  to  the  number  and  the  advance- 
ment of  helpers. 

(i)  One  of  the  chief  objections  to  the  policy  of  outright 
restriction  in  the  promotion  of  helpers  is  its  unfairness  to 
the  helpers.  Certainly  it  is  not  in  keeping  with  democratic 
ideals  of  social  justice  to  bar  unconditionally  the  path  of 
promotion  against  any  workman.  The  policy  of  absolute 
restriction  is  open  to  further  criticism  because  its  enforce- 
ment undoubtedly  means  a  decrease  in  the  industrial  effi- 
ciency of  the  men  employed.  This  decrease  might  be 
brought  about  by  destroying  the  stimulus  to  the  helper  which 
comes  from  the  hope  of  promotion  and  thus  preventing  him 
from  attaining  his  maximum  efficiency ;  by  removing  from 
the  journeymen  the  stimulating  efifects  of  competition ;  by 
preventing  an  efficient  helper  from  taking  the  place  of  an 
inefficient  journeyman  or  by  forcing  an  employer  to  go  out- 
side of  his  own  shop  for  workmen  rather  than  promote  those 
who  are  acquainted  with  the  work  of  that  particular  shop; 

115 


Il6  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS        [388 

and  by  preventing  the  expansion  of  the  trade  to  meet  legiti- 
mate social  needs. 

Helpers  who  are  cut  off  from  the  hope  of  being  elevated 
to  the  rank  and  work  of  journeymen  will  naturally  become 
more  dilatory  in  the  performance  of  their  duties.  It  might 
even  be  asserted  that  the  mechanics  of  a  trade,  by  being  re- 
lieved of  competition  from  their  subordinate  workmen,  will 
not  put  forth  their  best  efforts  to  become  more  proficient  in 
their  craft.  If  a  helper  becomes  or  could  become  a  more 
competent  worker  than  the  more  inefficient  workmen  in  a 
trade,  the  combined  efficiency  of  the  two  workmen  could  be 
increased  by  an  exchange  of  their  positions.  It  is  a  well- 
recognized  principle  in  the  industrial  world  that  the  maxi- 
mum efficiency  of  any  group  of  workmen  in  a  trade  or  in- 
dustry can  best  be  secured  if  they  are  assigned  work  accord- 
ing to  their  fitness  for  particular  tasks.  This  exchange  of 
positions,  it  is  true,  would  not  be  to  the  interest  of  those  in- 
ferior workmen  who  are  in  a  union  and  who  maintain  their 
positions  because  the  union  gives  them  protection.  But  it 
certainly  would  be  better  for  the  union  as  a  body  because  in 
this  way  the  most  capable  workmen  would  be  kept  to  the( 
front  and  the  standard  of  union  efficiency  raised.  In  this 
connection  it  is  important  to  note  that  the  present  system  of 
specialization  and  diversity  in  the  work  of  the  different 
shops  in  the  same  trade  often  renders  a  helper  more  capable 
of  taking  a  journeyman's  position  in  the  shop  where  he  has 
been  working  than  is  a  journeyman  who  has  never  worked 
in  that  particular  shop  or  at  that  particular  process. 

In  case  of  the  expansion  of  a  trade  and  a  consequent 
demand  for  more  workmen  the  promotion  of  efficient  helpers 
will  increase  their  productive  capacity,  for  a  skilled  work- 
man owes  in  a  large  measure  his  productive  superiority  over 
an  unskilled  workman  to  the  fact  that  he  is  allowed  to  con- 
fine himself  to  work  which  requires  dexterity.  In  short,  a 
skilled  man,  in  order  to  produce  the  greatest  amount,  must 
be  permitted  to  do  skilled  work.  The  positions  made  vacant 
by  the  promotion  of  helpers  competent  to  do  journeymen's 


389]  THE    HELPER   AND    TRADE-UNION    POLICY  II 7 

work  can  be  filled  from  the  lower  ranks  of  workmen,  of 
whom  there  is  always  a  plentiful  supply.  Thus  the  promo- 
tion of  helpers  to  meet  the  demands  of  a  trade  is  likely  not 
only  to  increase  the  welfare  of  the  helpers  and  to  make  them 
more  productive,  but  it  also  serves  as  a  means  to  relieve 
the  congestion  which  usually  prevails  in  the  ranks  of  the  less 
skilled  workmen. 

Since  trade  unions  are  usually  conceded  to  be  socially  de- 
sirable, it  may  be  contended  that  devices  for  strengthening 
trade  unions  are  likewise  desirable  even  though  certain  dis- 
advantages are  connected  with  such  devices.  This  inference 
depends  upon  the  success  attained  in  bringing  about  the  ends 
for  which  the  device  is  designed.  The  restrictive  policy  of 
unions  with  respect  to  the  promotion  of  helpers  can  hardly 
be  defended  on  this  score,  for  it  has  proved  far  from  suc- 
cessful as  a  means  of  strengthening  unionism. 

In  the  first  place,  if  a  union  opposes  the  promotion  of 
helpers  and  closes  its  doors  on  them,  they  will,  when  oppor- 
tunity offers,  accept  positions  as  non-union  mechanics  and 
in  this  capacity  be  infinitely  more  dangerous  to  organized 
labor  than  if  promoted  with  the  consent  of  the  unions  repre- 
senting the  trade  or  trades  to  which  they  belong.  Even  if  a 
trade  is  overcrowded,  it  is  evidently  better  for  the  union  to 
be  in  control  of  all  the  workmen  of  the  craft.  In  the  second 
place,  such  a  policy  embitters  the  helpers  against  the  unions 
and  makes  them  eager  to  grasp  any  opportunity  that  gives 
them  the  upper  hand  of  those  who  oppose  their  progress^ 
As  long  as  journeymen  pursue  such  undemocratic  policies; 
they  must  expect  that  their  helpers  will  act  as  strike  breakers 
whenever  opportunity  presents  itself. 

Aside  from  the  detriment  to  a  union  from  such  a  policy, 
an  opposite  policy  may  yield  positive  benefits.  If  employers 
are  allowed  freedom  in  the  selection  of  their  own  men,  there 
would  be  a  greater  disinclination  on  the  part  of  employers  to 
allow  a  strike.  If  the  employers  have  at  work  those  whom 
they  consider  the  best  obtainable  men  for  the  positions  of 
journeymen,  they  will  not  wish  to  run  the  chance  of  losing 


Il8  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [SQO 

them.  On  the  other  hand,  if  inferior  workmen  maintain 
their  positions  by  reason  of  a  labor  monopoly  while  skilled 
helpers  are  forced  to  remain  in  inferior  positions,  employers 
can  afford  to  oppose  the  demands  of  the  unions,  since  they 
may  count  on  helpers  to  take  the  places  of  striking  jour- 
neymen. 

Much  has  been  said  by  union  writers  in  opposition  to  the 
promotion  of  helpers  on  the  ground  that  such  a  course  tends 
to  lower  the  standard  of  a  trade.  That  this  is  merely  an 
assigned  rather  than  the  real  reason  for  pursuing  an  abso- 
lutely restrictive  policy  with  respect  to  the  promotion  of 
helpers  is  evident,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  standard  rate 
is  a  sufficient  guarantee  that  inefficient  helpers  will  not  be 
employed  as  journeymen. 

What  we  have  termed  a  modified  restrictive  policy  of 
promotion,  that  is,  allowing  a  certain  number  of  helpers  to 
be  promoted  according  to  certain  well-defined  or  sometimes 
indefinite  rules,  differs  in  degree  only  from  the  absolute  re- 
strictive policy.  To  the  extent  that  helpers  are  prevented 
by  artificial  means  from  becoming  mechanics,  to  that  extent 
the  selection  of  the  most  capable  workmen  is  hampered ;  an 
incentive  to  efficiency  is  taken  from  helpers  and  journey- 
men ;  a  hostile  spirit  on  the  part  of  the  helpers  toward  the 
journeymen  is  developed,  and  a  weakening  of  the  bargaining 
power  of  the  union  is  effected. 

A  fundamental  weakness  affecting  all  trade-union  restric- 
tions on  the  promotion  of  helpers  is  that  they  are  formulated 
to  bar  the  advancement  of  helpers  rather  than  to  test  the 
efficiency  of  candidates  desiring  recognition  as  journeymen. 
It  would  seem  that  the  only  just  position  for  any  union  to 
maintain  as  to  the  promotion  of  helpers  is  to  allow  such  pro- 
motion freely  provided  employers  see  fit  to  pay  the  standard 
rate  of  wages  for  the  work  done. 

That  limitations  on  the  promotion  of  helpers  are  not  nec- 
essary for  union  strength  and  stability,  and  that  promotion 
on  the  simple  basis  of  merit  is  feasible,  is  abundantly  con- 
firmed by  the  experience  of  certain  unions.     The  firemen 


39 1 ]  THE    HELPER   AND   TRADE-UNION    POLICY  II 9 

and  brakemen  are  helpers,  in  fact  if  not  in  name,  of  the  rail- 
way engineers  and  conductors  respectively.  The  promo- 
tion of  these  helpers  is,  however,  left  to  the  employers.  As 
a  result  there  is  no  friction  over  the  question  of  limitation 
of  numbers.  The  Engineers  and  Conductors  welcome  into 
their  respective  organizations  all  who  are  able  to  do  the  work 
and  receive  the  standard  rate  of  pay.  In  other  industries 
such  as  mining  and  the  textile  industries  this  plan  is  also 
followed.  Investigations  in  England  into  industries  in 
which  journeymen  are  recruited  from  the  most  capable 
assistants  without  any  restrictions  by  the  union — except  that 
the  one  promoted  shall  receive  the  standard  wage  of  the  posi- 
tion to  which  he  has  been  advanced — further  justify  the 
claim  that  promotion  of  helpers  on  the  basis  of  wage  paid 
will  not  destroy  the  strength  of  the  union.  In  cotton  spin- 
ning the  operators  are  recruited  from  the  piecers,  two  of 
whom  work  under  each  spinner.  Any  piecer  is  free  to  be- 
come a  spinner  provided  his  employers  will  consent  to  en- 
trust him  with  a  pair  of  mules,  and  provided  further  that 
the  piecer  thus  advanced  to  a  spinner  shall  receive  the 
standard  wage  for  what  he  does.  Notwithstanding  this 
system  of  a  perfectly  open  field  for  the  piecers,  Sidney  and 
Beatrice  Webb  tell  us  that  "  the  Amalgamated  Association 
of  Operative  Cotton-spinners  is  .  .  .  one  of  the  strongest, 
most  efficient,  and  most  successful  of  Trade  Unions.  In 
good  years  and  bad  alike  it  has  for  a  whole  generation  main- 
tained the  net  earnings  of  its  members  at  the  relatively  high 
level  of  from  35s.  to  50s.  a  week."^ 

If,  now,  we  turn  from  the  question  of  promotion  to  the 
policy  limiting  the  number  of  helpers  or  completely  eliminat- 
ing them,  the  important  question  is  raised  as  to  the  desirabil- 
ity of  having  a  journeyman  or  journeymen  perform  all  the 
work  without  the  aid  of  helpers.  President  Burke  of  the 
Plumbers  said  that  the  elimination  of  helpers  in  his  trade 
was  advisable  even  from  the  standpoint  of  the  master 
plumbers,  and  that  the  only  way  for  the  Plumbers  to  settle 

^  Industrial  Democracy,  p.  474. 


120  THE    HELPER   AND    AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS        [392 

this  question  satisfactorily  would  be  for  them  to  convince 
the  masters  that  it  is  poor  economy  to  employ  helpers  at  all.^ 

The  great  advantage  claimed  for  the  helper  system  is 
that  it  provides  for  a  more  economical  utilization  of  work- 
men by  making  possible  their  classification  according  to 
skill  and  capacity.  If  all  the  work  of  a  trade  which  can 
be  divided  into  skilled  and  unskilled  parts  be  performed  by 
expert  craftsmen,  the  product  turned  out  by  each  will  not  be 
the  maximum  amount  because  all  of  the  time  of  the  skilled 
workman  is  not  given  to  the  high-grade  work  which  he  is 
capable  of  performing.  If  helpers  are  not  employed,  then 
these  semi-skilled  mechanics — for  such  are  most  helpers — 
will  be  forced  into  lower-grade  work,  and  the  product  of 
their  labor  will  not  be  so  great  as  it  would  be  were  they 
allowed  to  do  the  highest  grade  work  of  which  they  are 
capable. 

It  might  be  said  that  the  foregoing  argument  is  convinc-^ 
ing  only  if  there  is  a  scarcity  of  skilled  mechanics,  or  at 
least  no  excess  of  them,  above  the  number  needed  for  per- 
forming the  highly  skilled  parts  of  a  trade.  If  this  were 
not  the  case,  would  not  semi-skilled  men  have  work  while 
the  skilled  men  were  idle,  and  would  not  this  result  in  a' 
social  loss?  A  careful  study  of  this  question  shows  that  a 
helper  system  of  work  is  not  likely  to  result  in  the  displace- 
ment of  skilled  men  by  unskilled  men.  Assuming  that  a 
standard  or  a  minimum  wage  is  maintained  for  helpers  just 
as  for  the  journeymen  of  a  trade,  what  will  take  place  if  for 
any  reason  there  is  an  oversupply  of  journeymen?  The 
answer  is  obvious.  Since  even  expert  mechanics  are  not  all 
possessed  of  the  same  degree  of  skill,  those  who  prove  them- 
selves in  the  eyes  of  the  employers  the  most  capable  will  be 
selected  for  the  high-grade  work,  and  the  others  will  be  left 
for  second-grade  or  helpers'  work.  Here  again,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  most  skilled  work,  if  there  is  an  excess  of  work- 
men the  most  efficient  will  secure  employment,  and  the 
residuum  will  be  pressed  further  down  the  line  until  finally 


2  Interview  with  the  writer. 


393]  THE    HELPER   AND   TRADE-UNION    POLICY  121 

the  least  desirable  men  will  be  forced  out  of  the  trade.  That 
the  employer  will  profit  by  engaging  skilled  men  to  do  his 
work  when  the  wage  scale  is  the  same  per  unit  of  efficiency 
for  all  classes  is  evident. 

It  is  said  that  in  the  long  run  a  helper  system  will  tend  to 
lower  productive  efficiency  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  in 
serving  as  helpers,  boys  are  often  cut  off  from  opportuni- 
ties of  learning  a  trade,  and  do  not  produce  as  much  as  they 
might  had  they  never  worked  as  helpers.  It  is  asserted  that 
helper  positions  are  but  blind-alley  employments  which  in 
the  end  greatly  increase  the  number  of  unskilled  relative  to 
the  number  of  skilled  workmen.  The  validity  of  this  rea- 
soning depends  largely  upon  the  efficiency  of  the  helper  sys- 
tem of  work  as  a  mode  of  learning  a  trade.  If,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  blowing  of  glass  bottles,  much  small  help  is  em- 
ployed and  little  opportunity  is  afforded  them  to  learn  the 
trade  in  which  they  act  as  assistants,  there  is  no  doubt  that 
the  boys  thus  employed  are  diverted  from  securing  the  prepa- 
ration necessary  to  attain  their  possible  maximum  efficiency 
as  workmen.  However,  these  form  exactly  the  class  of  help- 
ers who  have  received  slight  attention  from  labor  organiza- 
tions, or  none  at  all.  Unions  have  as  a  rule  concerned 
themselves  only  with  helpers  who  have  shown  a  tendency  to 
learn  a  trade. 

Here  the  helper  system  is  criticised  on  the  ground  that  it 
draws  more  men  into  a  trade  than  are  necessary  for  re- 
cruiting the  trade,  and  hence  produces  one  or  both  of  the 
following  conditions :  a  trade  overcrowded  with  mechanics, 
or  one  filled  with  helpers  or  semi-skilled  workmen  who  have 
little  opportunity  for  advancement.  Certainly  it  is  clear  that 
if  the  number  of  helpers  in  a  trade  is  large — if,  for  example, 
each  journeyman  has  a  helper — and  if  all  the  helpers  in  the 
course  of  three  or  four  years  become  expert  mechanics,  there 
would  be  under  ordinary  conditions  an  excess  of  mechanics 
over  the  number  needed.  In  fact,  however,  in  those  trades 
where  the  helper  system  of  entrance  to  a  trade  or  position  is 
not  restricted  by  union  rules,  there  is  no  tendency  to  over- 


122  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [394 

crowd  a  trade.  In  the  iron  and  steel  business,  for  instance, 
helpers  are  promoted  gradually  as  vacancies  occur.  Pro- 
motion is  in  regular  order,  but  there  is  no  clearly  defined 
rule  as  to  this ;  yet  no  complaint  is  made  by  the  workmen 
that  the  system  tends  to  produce  too  many  journeymen. 
What  really  takes  place  is  this :  If  men  who  are  at  the 
heads  of  teams  become  for  any  reason  incapable  of  filling 
their  positions  satisfactorily,  there  is  a  reclassification  of 
workmen.  Helpers  and  journeymen  exchange  places.  This 
is  better  for  the  journeymen  than  to  be  thrown  out  of  work. 
As  far  as  the  helpers  are  concerned,  there  is  usually  room  at 
the  top,  and  few  are  kept  at  unskilled  positions  when  they 
prove  themselves  worthy  of  promotion. 

The  question  is  not  whether  two  skilled  men  can  do  more 
than  two  unskilled  men,  but  whether  it  is  desirable,  taking 
the  best  men  obtainable,  to  have  a  division  in  their  work  so 
that  some  become  assistants  to  others.  In  spite  of  the  pro- 
tests of  the  unions  that  the  use  of  helpers  is  poor  economy 
on  the  part  of  employers,  the  fact  remains  that  the  helper 
system  is  a  result  of  the  division  of  labor  which  is  usually 
recognized  as  superior  to  the  system  of  having  one  work- 
man do  all  grades  of  work  in  a  trade.  The  fact  also  remains 
that  the  unions  have  not  convinced  employers  that  it  is  to  the 
advantage  of  an  employer  to  eliminate  helpers.  If  wages 
per  efficiency  unit  are  the  same  for  helpers  and  journeymen, 
and  employers  prefer  to  use  a  certain  number  of  helpers,  the 
evidence  is  fairly  conclusive  that  the  use  of  helpers  afifords 
economy  in  production. 

This  consideration  brings  up  another  question  with  regard 
to  the  advisability  of  doing  away  with  helpers.  The  effi- 
ciency of  the  system  as  a  means  of  learning  a  trade  should 
have  much  weight  in  any  judgment  on  this  question.  The 
helper  system  has  certain  advantages  over  any  other  sys- 
tem of  learning  a  trade.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  favorable 
to  the  efficiency  of  production  because  of  the  elasticity  in  the 
supply  of  the  product  which  it  renders  possible.  This  elas- 
ticity is  due  to  the  fact  that  more  easily  and  more  quickly 


395]  THE    HELPER   AND   TRADE-UNION    POLICY  1 23 

than  any  other  plan  of  trade  entrance  the  helper  system 
permits  an  increase  in  the  number  of  mechanics  to  meet  the 
demands  for  labor  resulting  from  the  expansion  of  a  shop 
or  of  a  trade.  By  promoting  a  helper  to  a  journeyman's  posi- 
tion and  by  filling  the  vacancy  thus  made  from  unskilled  or 
relatively  unskilled  workmen — of  whom  there  is  always 
a  plentiful  supply — an  employer  can  keep  his  plant  going,  in 
case  he  loses  some  of  his  journeymen,  without  any  great 
diminution  of  output.  On  the  other  hand,  if  there  are  no 
helpers  in  a  trade  and  if  there  is  in  a  shop  a  demand  for 
mechanics  above  that  which  can  be  supplied  from  the  regu- 
lar apprentices,  the  employer  will  face  one  of  two  situations. 
Either  he  will  not  be  able  to  supply  his  need,  in  which  case 
his  output  will  be  greatly  reduced,  or  he  will  be  forced  to 
select  his  mechanics  from  the  unemployed,  who  are  usually 
the  less  desirable  men  in  a  trade. 

In  the  second  place,  since  helpers  are  employed  primarily 
to  meet  an  economic  need,  the  education  they  get  comes  as  a 
by-product  of  an  existing  economic  system.  Hence  the 
helper  system  affords  an  economical  way  of  learning  a  trade. 
In  blacksmithing,  for  instance,  it  is  inconvenient  and  costly 
to  provide  a  fire  for  an  apprentice,  who  often  does  little  more 
than  waste  material.  Since  it  is  essential  that  two  men 
work  together  in  blacksmithing,  and  since  it  is  unnecessary 
that  both  these  men  shall  be  highly  skilled,  a  helper  by  work- 
ing hand  to  hand  with  a  smith  has  every  opportvmity  to  learn 
the  craft.  Thus  without  any  waste  of  material  or  time, 
helpers  may  become  skilled  in  the  trade. 

If  helpers  be  eliminated,  how  shall  work  be  done  which 
cannot  be  done  by  one  man  ?  This  is  a  matter  of  importance 
in  some  trades.  In  plumbing,  for  instance,  some  of  a 
helper's  time  is  taken  up  in  assisting  the  journeyman  to  lift 
and  adjust  heavy  fixtures,  work  which  one  man  cannot  do 
by  himself.  Some  plumbers  contend  that  mechanics  may 
assist  each  other  at  such  work,  and  work  independently  of 
each  other  on  all  other  work.  It  would  obviously  be  poor 
economy  to  send  out  two  high-priced  mechanics  to  do  a  piece 
of  work  which  one  mechanic  and  a  helper  could  do  as  well. 


124  '^^^    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS        [396 

Undoubtedly  many  unsatisfactory  conditions  the  blame 
for  which  is  given  to  the  helper  system  are  due  not  to  the 
system  itself,  but  to  the  methods  employed  by  the  unions  to 
regulate  or  to  abolish  it.  Of  all  the  trades  in  which  the. 
helper  question  has  been  prominent  the  plumbing  trade  has 
been  said  to  show  the  most  unsatisfactory  conditions.  How- 
ever, Sidney  and  Beatrice  Webb  report  that  in  England 
the  helper  system  is  accepted  by  the  unions  of  plumbers. 
They  say :  "  The  employers  in  London  do  not  engage  boys 
or  apprentices  to  assist  the  men  in  plumbing,  or  to  learn  the 
trade.  The  custom  is  for  each  plumber  to  be  attended  by  an 
adult  laborer,  known  as  the  'plumber's  mate.'  Any  em- 
ployer is  at  liberty  to  promote  a  plumber's  mate  to  be  a 
plumber  whenever  he  chooses,  provided  only  that  he  pays 
him  the  plumber's  Standard  Rate.  Notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  the  number  of  '  plumbers'  mates,'  who  form  the  class  of 
learners,  is  four  or  five  times  as  numerous  as  would  suffice 
to  recruit  the  trade,  the  London  branches  of  the  United 
Operative  Plumbers'  Society  effectively  maintain  a  high 
Standard  Rate."^  Reference  has  been  previously  made  to 
the  fact  that  the  helper  system  of  learning  the  plumbing  trade 
has  been  accepted  by  the  New  York  plumbers.  In  reply  to 
an  inquiry  as  to  the  workings  of  the  system  in  that  city,  Sec- 
retary Hopkins  of  Local  Union  Number  489  writes  :  "  The 
question  of  the  helper  has  never  received  serious  considera- 
tion as  we  feel  that  with  the  co-operation  of  the  Master 
Plumbers  (with  whom  we  are  on  close  terms)  we  can  con- 
trol them." 

(2)  We  have  seen  that  three  methods  of  employing  and 
paying  helpers  have  been  followed  :  (a)  The  journeymen  en- 
gage and  pay  their  helpers;  (b)  the  journeymen  engage  the 
helpers,  who  are  paid  by  the  employer;  and  (c)  the  em- 
ployers hire  and  pay  the  helpers. 

(a)    The  policy  of  the  unions  in  permitting   if   not   in 

advocating  the  employment  and  the  payment  of  helpers  by 

the  journeymen  is  not  conducive  to  the  organization  of  help- 
____ 


397]  THE    HELPER   AND   TRADE-UNION    POLICY  12$ 

ers  ill  unions  with  the  journeymen.  The  journeymen  potters, 
for  instance,  do  not  object  to  taking  helpers  into  their  union, 
but  the  various  classes  of  helpers  in  the  pottery  industry 
have  not  availed  themselves  of  the  privileges  granted  to  them 
in  this  respect.  The  helpers  do  not  care  to  be  organized  in 
the  same  unions  with  their  employers. 

In  trades  or  industries  where  the  journeymen  hire  and  pay 
helpers  the  journeymen  are  frequently  not  consistent  in 
their  attitude  toward  collective  bargaining.  For  instance, 
the  Potters  in  agreement  with  the  firms  establish  a  wage 
scale.  As  employees  the  journeymen  potters  certainly  think 
it  fair  and  just  that  they,  collectively,  shall  have  a  voice  in 
fixing  wages.  However,  as  employers,  the  journeymen  at- 
tempt to  fix  the  wages  of  helpers.  In  the  days  of  the 
United  Sons  of  Vulcan,  when  the  helpers  were  paid  directly 
by  the  journeymen,  it  was  the  policy  of  the  union,  in  which 
helpers  were  not  then  included,  to  establish  a  uniform  rate 
of  pay  for  helpers.* 

(b)  The  present  rule  of  the  Iron,  Steel  and  Tin  Workers 
is  that  journeymen  shall  employ  their  own  help,  despite  the 
fact  that  it  is  the  policy  of  the  union  to  have  all  helpers  paid 
from  the  office  of  the  firms. ^  At  first  thought  this  policy 
may  seem  unfair  to  the  employers ;  but  when  consideration  is 
given  to  the  fact  that  in  iron,  steel  and  tin  mills  work  is 
usually  paid  for  by  the  piece  or  by  the  turn  and  that  the  piece 
wage  includes  the  wages  of  both  journeymen  and  helpers, 
it  is  readily  seen  that  this  method  of  hiring  and  paying  help- 
ers should  ordinarily  be  satisfactory  to  the  firms.  In  the 
first  place,  so  much  is  paid  for  the  work  turned  out,  and  it 
is  immaterial  to  the  firms  whether  the  entire  amount  be 
paid  to  the  heads  of  the  various  teams  or  to  the  individual 
workmen.  In  the  second  place,  since  journeymen  must  have 
help  to  do  their  work,  and  since  their  product  and  con- 
sequently their  wages  depend  upon  the  efficiency  of  the 
help  employed,  the  hiring  of  the  help  by  the  individual  jour- 

*  Proceedings,  1875,  p.  58. 

^  Constitution,  1912,  art.  xvii,  sec.  21. 


126  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE    UNIONS        [398 

neymen  shifts  responsibility  from  the  firms  to  the  heads  of 
the  various  teams. 

(c)  The  policy  of  unions  of  allowing  the  firms  to  employ 
and  pay  all  helpers  would  appear  at  first  thought  to  be  the 
fairest  plan  of  all  to  those  directly  concerned.  Since,  how- 
ever, the  output  of  a  journeyman  is  largely  dependent  upon 
the  work  of  his  helper  or  helpers,  this  method  at  times  may 
be  a  source  of  friction  between  a  journeyman  and  his  em- 
ployer. Reference  was  made  at  the  eighth  annual  conven- 
tion of  the  National  Association  of  Iron,  Steel  and  Tin 
Workers  to  trouble  in  the  Tubal  Cain  Lodge  growing  out  of 
the  furnishing  of  unsatisfactory  help  by  an  employer.*'  The 
product  turned  out  was  not  up  to  the  standard,  and  the  boiler 
maker  blamed  the  helper  for  the  defective  work.  Obviously, 
if  a  boiler  maker  hires  his  own  help,  there  is  no  shifting  of 
the  responsibility  for  unsatisfactory  work.  The  boiler- 
maker  becomes  responsible  for  the  work  of  both  himself 
and  his  helper. 

In  industries,  however,  where  it  is  possible  to  separate 
the  work  of  the  mechanics  and  the  helpers  so  that  each  will 
have  definite  duties,  hiring  and  payment  by  the  employer  be- 
come possible,  because  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  piece 
prices  shall  include  all  the  work  of  turning  out  the  finished 
product.  The  jiggerman  in  the  pottery  trade  could  get  a 
piece  wage  for  the  work  done  by  himself  just  as  well  as  he 
could  for  the  work  of  himself  and  all  his  helpers.  Even  in 
cases  of  this  kind,  however,  it  is  usually  more  satisfactory 
for  journeymen  to  engage  their  own  helpers,  for  they  can  act 
as  overseers  of  helpers  and  at  the  same  time  do  their  own 
work  effectively. 

(3)  From  the  standpoint  of  social  interest  the  policy  of 
excluding  helpers  from  union  membership  can  be  briefly 
estimated.  It  is  generally  admitted  to  be  socially  beneficial 
for  laborers  of  all  classes  to  be  organized.  This  being  true, 
the  question  arises  as  to  what  should  be  the  relation  of 
organized  helpers  to   organized  journeymen   in   order   to 

8  Proceedings,  1883,  p.  1170. 


399]  THE    HELPER   AND    TRADE-UNION    POLICY  12/ 

secure  the  most  stable  and  efficient  form  of  organization 
for  all  concerned. 

With  two  exceptions,  organizations  of  helpers  not  affili- 
ated with  journeymen's  organizations  or  with  the  American 
Federation  of  Labor  have  not  flourished.  In  the  main  this 
is  due  to  the  lack  of  initiative  and  executive  ability  on  the 
part  of  helpers.  The  exceptions  are  the  Brotherhood  of 
Locomotive  Firemen  and  the  Brotherhood  of  Stationary 
Firemen.  The  members  of  these  unions  are  of  a  higher 
type  than  most  helpers,  and  for  this  reason  they  have  been 
able  of  their  own  accord  to  maintain  prosperous  organiza- 
tions. As  stated  in  a  previous  chapter,  no  national  organi- 
zation of  helpers  representing  only  a  single  trade  as  dis- 
tinguished from  an  industry  has  ever  been  chartered  by  the 
American  Federation  of  Labor.  The  Federation  has  evi- 
dently acted  wisely  in  not  encouraging  such  organizations, 
for  their  existence  would  mean  endless  jurisdictional  dis- 
putes with  the  journeymen's  unions.  It  appears,  therefore, 
that  if  helpers  specialized  in  a  particular  trade  are  ever  to 
be  successfully  organized  they  must  be  allowed  to  organize 
in  conjunction  with  the  journeymen  of  their  respective 
trades. 

It  has  not  been  possible  to  estimate  with  exactness  the 
success  which  organized  journeymen  have  met  with  in  their 
efforts  to  organize  the  helpers  in  their  trades,  but  from  the 
information  at  hand  it  is  safe  to  state  that  helpers  as  a  rule 
do  not  seem  to  be  attracted  by  the  privilege  of  membership 
in  journeymen's  unions.  Helpers  about  potteries  and  iron, 
steel  and  tin  plants,  according  to  information  obtained  from 
the  secretaries  of  the  unions  in  these  industries,  are  not  as  a 
rule  members  of  the  union.  This  is  no  doubt  due  in  large 
measure  to  the  fact  that  journeymen  are  the  employers  of 
the  helpers.  Secretary  Hogan  of  the  Marble  Workers 
writes  as  follows :  "  We  have  had  an  average  membership 
of  helpers  of  about  thirty  per  year  in  the  past  ten  years. 
One  year,  1910,  we  took  in  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  in 
the  different  locals.     The  helper   in   our   industry   is  not 


128  THE    HELPER   AND   AMERICAN    TRADE   UNIONS        [4OO 

favored  with  steady  work  the  year  around,  therefore,  there 
is  very  little  inducement  for  him  to  join  our  organization, 
in  many  cases  preferring  to  work  on  a  privilege  without 
making  application  to  the  organization."^  The  disinclina- 
tion of  marble  workers'  helpers  to  join  the  International 
Association  of  Marble  Workers  is  doubtless  due  in  part  to 
the  fact  that  the  association  is  opposed  to  the  promotion  of 
helpers.  The  helpers  feel  that  they  have  a  better  chance 
for  promotion  out  of  the  union  than  they  have  in  it.  A 
delegate  to  the  Printing  Pressmen's  Convention  said,  with 
reference  to  the  promotion  of  helpers  in  the  printing  busi- 
ness, that  when  a  man  who  does  not  belong  to  a  union  gets 
a  job,  he  is  taken  in,  and  he  asked  if  a  man  should  be 
refused  the  privilege  of  promotion  because  he  is  a  loyal 
union  assistant.^ 

In  very  few  of  the  unions  which  have  made  provision 
for  admitting  helpers  to  membership  and  have  also  some 
provision  for  promoting  helpers  to  journeymen  are  the 
helpers  given  rights  and  privileges  sufficient  to  draw  them 
into  the  union.  Few  helpers  want  to  join  a  union  which 
stipulates  that  no  helper  can  be  advanced  in  the  trade  to  the 
detriment  of  journeymen  or  apprentices.^  For  instance,  a 
boiler  maker's  helper,  discussing  the  rights  of  the  helpers  to 
hold  office  in  the  Brotherhood  of  Boiler  Makers,  said  if 
there  was  so  much  opposition  to  helpers  holding  office,  he 
for  one  did  not  want  to  be  taken  in  with  the  boiler  makers.^" 

The  failure,  or  at  least  the  lack  of  success,  of  the  unions 
in  their  efforts  to  organize  the  helpers  is  due  chiefly  to  the 
efforts  of  journeymen  to  restrict  the  promotion  of  helpers 
and  secondarily  to  the  opposing  views  of  helpers  and 
journeymen  as  to  what  should  be  the  rights  and  privileges 
of  helpers  as  union  members.  If  helpers  in  large  numbers 
ever  come  into  the  unions  and  work  in  harmony  with  the 
journeymen,  these  differences  of  opinion  must  in  some  way 

"^  In  letter  to  the  writer. 

^  Proceedings,  1899,  p.  69. 

»  Constitution  to  Govern  Machinists'  Helpers,  191 1,  art.  i. 

1°  Proceedings,  1912,  p.  128. 


40 1  ]  THE    HELPER   AND   TRADE-UNION    POLICY  I  29 

be  diminished.  The  welfare  of  the  crafts  would  seem  to 
demand  that  journeymen  should  retain  control  in  their  re- 
spective unions.  Otherwise,  if  helpers  should  in  any  case 
have  a  majority  of  members  in  a  union,  their  eagerness  for 
increased  wages  and  rapid  promotion  might  work  harm  to 
the  union.  On  the  other  hand,  fairness  to  helpers  and  social 
interest  demand  that  all  limitations  upon  the  promotion  of 
helpers,  other  than  the  ability  to  command  the  standard 
wage,  should  be  abolished.  This  would  take  away  from 
helpers  the  belief  that  limitations  on  their  rights  and  privi- 
leges as  union  members  are  mainly  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
tarding their  advancement.  It  is  not  likely  that  helpers 
would  refuse  to  join  a  union  merely  because  they  did  not 
have  the  same  rights  as  journeymen  provided  there  were  no 
arbitrary  restrictions  to  keep  them  from  becoming  journey- 
men. 


INDEX 


Allied  Metal  Mechanics,  46. 
American  Federation  of  Labor, 

15,  80-81,  83,  84-87,  94,  127. 
Apprentices,    16-23,    49-50,    108, 

109-110. 

Batter-out,  24,  ^6,  89. 

Berkshire,  20,  37,  58,  67-71. 

Blacksmiths  and  Helpers,  Inter- 
national Brotherhood  of,  use 
of  term  helper-apprentice,  ig- 
20;  advancement  of  helpers, 
22,  45-46,  51 ;  restriction  on 
the  use  of  helpers,  z~,  36,  92; 
encroachment  of  helpers  on 
work  of  journeymen,  33;  help- 
ers easily  learn  trade,  44;  or- 
ganization  of   helpers,   92,   94. 

Blacksmiths'  helpers,  Albany, 
New  York,  82. 

Boiler  Makers  and  Iron  Ship- 
builders, Brotherhood  of,  use 
of  term  helper-apprentice,  19; 
helpers  become  apprentices, 
21,  48;  restrictions  as  to  use 
of  helpers,  Z'^,  36;  encroach- 
ment of  helpers  on  jurisdic- 
tion of  journeymen,  35;  ad- 
vancement of  helpers,  45 ;  or- 
ganization of  helpers,  85,  92, 
99,  100;  control  over  helpers, 
102,  128. 

Bricklayers  and  Masons,  Inter- 
national Union  of,  15. 

Buck.     See  Berkshire. 

Building  Laborers'  Protective 
Union,  International,  of  Low- 
ell, Mass.,  84. 

Building  Trades  Department  of 
the  American  Federation  of 
Labor,  84-85. 

Burke,  president  and  former 
organizer  of  the  Plumbers, 
33-34,  60,  65. 

Canadian  and  Pacific  Railway 
Company,  20. 


Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pa- 
cific Railway  Company,  19. 

Cleaner-off,  30,  43. 

Commons,  John  R.,  quoted,  70. 

Corder,  president  of  the  Marble 
Workers,   104. 

Cotton  Spinners,  Amalgamated 
Association  of  Operative,  119. 

Cummings,  organizer  of  the 
Steam  Fitters,   16. 

Davenport  Locomotive  Com- 
pany, 12. 

Electrical  Workers,  Interna- 
tional Brotherhood  of,  use  of 
terms  helper-apprentice  and 
apprentice,  18-19 ;  restriction 
on  use  of  helpers,  32;  ad- 
vancement of  helpers,  45-50 ; 
organization  of  helpers,  97- 
98,  114;  Local  Union  No.  3, 
19;  Local  Union  No.  28,  18- 
19,    112-113. 

Elevator  Constructors,  Interna- 
tional Association  of,  use 
of  terms  helper  and  appren- 
tice, 18;  restriction  as  to  use 
of  helpers,  32,  112;  advance- 
ment of  helpers,  45,  50;  or- 
ganization of  helpers,  97-98, 
114;  control  over  helpers,  113. 

Fly  boys,  107. 

Founders'  Association,  Nation- 
al, 61. 

Foundry  Employees,  Interna- 
tional Brotherhood  of,  87. 

Fox,  president  of  the  Molders, 
70. 

Frey,  John  P.,  quoted,  70. 

Gilthorpe,  president  of  the 
Boiler  Makers,  59,  91,  99. 

Glass  Bottle  Blowers'  Associa- 
tion, 75-76. 


131 


132 


INDEX 


[404 


Handy  laborer,  13. 

Handy-man,  13-14,  79-8o,  86, 
92,  97- 

Helper,  definition  of,  9;  classes 
of,  9;  remote,  9-10;  proper, 
10-12;  advanced,  12-13;  as  de- 
fined by  different  trades,  13- 
15 ;  differentiated  from  ap- 
prentices, 16-23 ;  from  other 
subordinate  workmen,  23-24 ; 
employment  of  the  remote 
helper,  26-27;  of  the  helper 
proper,  28-32;  evils  of  helper 
system,  32-35 ;  remedy  of  ab- 
solute restriction,  35-37;  ob- 
stacles, 37-45;  remedy  of 
modified  restriction,  45-55 ; 
remedy  of  abolition,  55-59; 
obstacles  to  abolition,  59-61 ; 
attitude  of  employers  toward, 
61-63 ;  attempts  of  Plumbers 
to  restrict  or  abolish,  63-66; 
hiring  and  compensation  of 
helpers,  as  seen  in  various 
unions,  67-77;  objections  to 
organizing  helpers  with  jour- 
neymen, 78-81 ;  four  classes 
of  helpers  not  organized  with 
journeymen,  81-88;  organiza- 
tion of  helpers  with  journey- 
men, 89-101 ;  difficulties,  loi- 
log ;  attempts  to  remove  diffi- 
culties, 109-1 12;  subordination 
of  helpers  when  organized 
with  journeymen,  1 12-1 14;  use 
of  helper,  considered  from 
standpoint  of  economic  wel- 
fare and  social  justice,  115- 
124 ;  hiring  and  compensation 
of  helper  so  considered,  124- 
126;  organization  of  helper 
so  considered,  126-129. 

Helper-apprentice,  12,  19-20. 

Hexagon  Labor  Club,  41. 

Hod  carriers  and  building  la- 
borers, independent  local  un- 
ions of,  83. 

Hod  Carriers  and  Building  La- 
borers' International  Union, 
83,  87-88. 

Hogan,  secretary  of  the  Marble 
Workers,   127-128. 

Holder-on,  14,  91. 

Hopkins,  secretary  of  the  Plumb- 
ers' Local  Union  No.  489,  124. 


Improver,  12-13. 

Industrial  Commission,  United 
States,  46. 

Iron  Molders.  See  Holders'  In- 
ternational Union. 

Iron,  Steel  and  Tin  Workers, 
Amalgamated  Association  of, 
work  of  helpers,  30  n. ;  pay- 
ment of  helpers,  73-74;  or- 
ganization of  helpers,  90,  91- 
92;  helpers  employed  by  jour- 
neymen, 125 ;  Local  Lodge 
No.  84,  29;  Local  Lodge  No. 
13,  29. 

Iron,  Steel  and  Tin  Workers, 
National  Association  of,  126; 
Tubal  Cain  Lodge,  126. 

Jiggerman,  24,  76,  89. 
Junior,  12. 

Keegan,  delegate  to  convention 
of  the  Machinists,  86. 

Kelly,  John  S.,  president  of  the 
Plumbers,  18,  33. 

Kleiber,  secretary  of  the  Mold- 
ers, 68,  70-71. 

Knights  of  Labor,  81. 

Labor  Lodge,  Federated,  86. 

Laborer,  13,  71. 

Laborers'    Union,    International, 

Dayton,  Ohio,  84. 
Layer-out,  76. 
Locomotive     Engineers,     Grand 

International  Brotherhood  of, 

119. 

McCulloch,  Joseph,  business 
agent  of  the  Marble  Cutters 
and  Setters,  46. 

Machinists,  International  Asso- 
ciation of,  helpers  become  ap- 
prentices, 21,  48;  restrictions 
on  use  of  helpers,  32,  36,  108; 
encroachment  of  helpers  on 
work  of  journeymen,  33,  38; 
organization  of  helpers,  44, 
79-^,  83,  85,  96-97,  100,  108; 
refusal  of  journeymen  to  do 
low-grade  work,  60;  control 
over  helpers,  102. 

Manufacturers,  National  Asso- 
ciation of,  39 ;  Western  As- 
sociation of,  76. 

Marble    Workers,    International 


405] 


INDEX 


133 


Association  of,  restrictions  as 
to  use  of  helpers,  36,  46-48; 
purpose  in  organizing  helpers, 
92-93 ;  disinclination  of  help- 
ers to  join  union,  128;  Local 
Union  No.  24,  35. 

Metal  Trades  Association,  Na- 
tional, 39,  61. 

Miller,  master  steam  fitter,  16. 

Mine  Workers  of  America, 
United,  97,  114. 

Miners,  Western  Federation  of, 
32. 

Mold  boy,  30,  43. 

Mold  runner,  24,  y6,  89. 

Molders'  Union,  International, 
restrictions  as  to  use  of  help- 
ers, 32,  36,  Z7,  55,  58,  68-72; 
payment  of  helpers,  67-72. 

Morrison,  secretary  of  American 
Federation  of  Labor,  80-81, 
87,  88,  94-95. 

Motley,  J.  M.,  quoted,  20-21. 

O'Connell,  arbitrator  between 
the  Blacksmiths  and  the  Al- 
lied Metal  Mechanics,  45-46. 

Perry,  John  S.,  stove  manufac- 
turer, 45,  60,  62,  6z. 

Plumbers,  convention  of  Mas- 
ter, 62-63. 

Plumbers,  Gas  Fitters,  Steam 
Fitters  and  Steam  Fitters' 
Helpers,  United  Association 
of  Journeymen,  use  of  terms 
helper  and  apprentice,  16-18; 
restrictions  as  to  use  of  help- 
ers, 27,  32,  54-56,  63-66;  en- 
croachment of  helpers  on  work 
of  journeymen,  22>,  36;  ad- 
vancement of  helpers,  45,  51 ; 
Baltimore  business  agent,  57 
n. ;  purpose  of  organization 
of  helpers,  79. 

Plumbers'  Operative  Society, 
United,  London  branches,  124. 

Potters,  National  Brotherhood 
of  Operative,  restrictions  as 
to  use  of  helpers,  32 ;  helpers 
become  apprentices,  48 ;  ad- 
vancement of  helpers,  45,  50; 
payment  of  helpers,  76-77, 
125 ;  disinclination  of  helpers 
to  join  union,  90  n. 

Printing   Pressmen   and   Assist- 


ants' Union,  International,  as- 
sistants become  apprentices, 
21,  48,  49;  restrictions  as  to 
use  of  helpers,  32;  promotion 
of  helpers,  45,  128;  board  of 
directors  of,  102-103 ;  conten- 
tions between  pressmen  and 
assistants,  105-108,  109-112, 
128;  Adams  Cylinder  and 
Press  Printers  No.  51,  105; 
Franklin  Association  No.  23, 
105,  107;  Local  Union  No.  40, 
III. 
Puddlers'  helpers,  organized  at 
New  Albany,  Indiana,  82; 
strike  in  Chicago,  82. 

Railway  Conductors  of  Amer- 
ica, Order  of,  119. 

Reynolds,  secretary  of  the  Tile 
Layers,  39-42. 

Rogan,  plumber  of  Minneapolis, 
56. 

Sakolski,  A.  M.,  quoted,  21,  22, 

22- 

Sheet  Metal  Workers,  Local 
Union  No.  143,  36-37- 

Sons  of  Vulcan,  United,  73-74, 
82,  93,  125. 

Specialist,  13-14. 

Stationary  Firemen,  Interna- 
tional Brotherhood  of,  127. 

Steam  Fitters,  Master,  of  St. 
Louis,  52,  62. 

Steam,  Hot  Water  and  Power 
Pipe  Fitters  and  Helpers,  In- 
ternational Association  of,  re- 
strictions as  to  use  of  helpers, 
32,  53 ;  advancement  of  help- 
ers, 45,  50,  51 ;  transfer  of 
helpers  from  one  local  union 
to  another,  51 ;  conflicts  be- 
tween master  and  journey- 
men, 52;  organization  of  help- 
ers, 97-98;  of  McAlester,  Ok- 
lahoma, 55 ;  of  Washington, 
55 ;  of  Philadelphia,  103 ;  lack 
of  harmony  between  fitters 
and  helpers,  104. 

Stove  and  Hardware  Molders' 
Union  of  Philadelphia,  Jour- 
neymen, 67. 

Stove  Founders'  National  De- 
fense Association,  71. 


134 


INDEX 


[406 


Sullivan,  delegate  to  convention 
of  Machinists,  86. 

Teamsters,  Chauffeurs,  Stable- 
men and  Helpers,  Interna- 
tional Brotherhood  of,  14,  28- 
29. 

Texas  and  Pacific  Railway  Com- 
pany, 20. 

Tile  Layers,  International  As- 
sociation of,  restrictions  as  to 
use  of  helpers,  32,  36,  53;  vio- 


lation of  helper  regulations, 
39;  advancement  of  helpers, 
45.  49;  organization  of  help- 
ers, 79 ;  control  over  helpers, 
102,  113. 

Webb,     Sidney     and     Beatrice, 

quoted,  119,  124. 
Weyl,  W.  E.,  quoted,  21,  22,  23. 
Whitney,  N.  R.,  quoted,  84-85. 
Window     Glass     Workers     of 

America,  Amalgamated,  49,  76. 


VITA 

John  H.  Ashworth  was  born  in  Bland  County,  Virginia, 
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Emory  and  Henry  College,  where  he  graduated  in  1906  with 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts.  In  1906-1907  he  was  prin- 
cipal of  the  high  school  at  Wise,  Virginia,  and  from  1907  to 
191 1  he  was  principal  of  the  high  school  at  Norton,  Virginia. 
In  191 1  he  entered  the  Johns  Hopkins  University,  taking 
graduate  work  in  political  economy,  political  science,  and 
history.  He  was  Fellow  in  Political  Economy  in  1912- 
1913,  and  Fellow  by  Courtesy  in  1913-1914.  He  received 
the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  in  1914. 


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*XII.  Local  Government  and  Schools  in  South  Carolina.     By  B.  J.  Ramagb. 

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VIII-IX.  Indian  Money  in  New  England,  etc.     By  William  B.  Wbedbn.     50  cents. 
•X.  Town  and  County  Government  in  the  Colonies.     By  E.  Channinq. 

•XI.  Rudimentary  Society  among  Boys.     By  J.  Hemsley  Johnson. 
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XI-XII,  The  City  of  Washington.    By  J.  A.  Portkb.    50  cents. 

FOURTH    SERIES.— 1886. 

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VI.  The  Puritan  Colony  at  Annapolis,  Maryland.     By  D.  R.  Randall.     50  cents. 
VII-VIII-IX.  The  Land  Question  In  the  United  States.     By  S.  Sato.     $1.00. 

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XI-XII.  Land  System  of  the  New  England  Colonies,     By  M.  Eglbston.     50  cents. 

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VII-IX,  Progress  of  the  Colored  People  of  Maryland.     By  J.  R.  Beackett.    $1.00. 
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NINTH  SERIES.— 1891. 

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•V-VI.  Municipal  Unity  in  the  Lombard  Communes.     By  W.  K.  Williams. 
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IX,  Constitutional  Development  of  Japan.     By  T.  Itenaga.     50  cents. 
•X.  A  History  of  Liberia.     By  J.  H.  T.  McPherson. 

XI-XII.  The  Indian  Trade  in  Wisconsin.    By  F.  J.  Tdbneb.    50  cents. 

TENTH  SERIES,— 1892.— $3.50. 

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VIII-IX,  The  Quakers  in  Pennsylvania.     By  A.  C.  Applegaeth.     75  cents. 

X-XI.  Columbus  and  his  Discovery  of  America.     By  H.  B.  Adams  and  H.  Wood.     50  cents. 
XII.  Causes  of  the  American  Eevolution,     By  J.  A.  Woodbubn.    50  cents. 

ELEVENTH  SERIES.— 1893.— $3.50. 

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XI-XII.  Local  Government  in  the  South.    By  B.  W.  Bemis  and  others.     $1.00. 

TWELFTH  SERIES.— 1894.— $3.50. 
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IV.  Struggle  of  Dissenters  for  Toleration  in  Virginia.     By  H.  R.  McIlwainb.     50  cents. 
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VIII-IX.  Representation  and  Suffrage  in  Massachusetts.     By  G.  H.  Haynes.     50  cents. 

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XI-XII.  International  Beginnings  of  the  Congo  Free  State.    By  J.  S.  Reeves.     50  cents. 

THIRTEENTH  SERIES.— 1895.— 53-50. 
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Ill-rV.  Early   Relations   of   Maryland   and   Virginia.     By   J.    H.    Latan^.     50   cents. 

V.  The  Rise  of  the  Bicameral  System  in  America.     By  T.  F.  Moran.     50  cents. 
VI-VII.  White  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  Virginia.     By  J.  C.  Ballagh.     50  cents. 

VIII.  The  Genesis  of  California's  First  Constitution.     By  R.  D.  Hdnt.     50  cents. 

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X.  The  Provisional  Government  of  Maryland.     By  J.  A.  Silver.     50  cents. 

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FOURTEENTH  SERIES.— 1896.— $3-5o. 

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III.  Colonial  Origins  of  New  England  Senates.     By  F.  L.  Riley.     50  cents. 
IV-V.  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  North  Carolina.     By  J.  S.  Bassett.     50  cents. 
VI-VII.  Representation  in  Virginia.     By  J.  A.  C.  Chandler.     50  cents. 

VIII.  History  of  Taxation  in  Connecticut  (1636-1776).       By  F.  R.  Jones.     50  cents. 
IX-X.  A  Study  of  Slavery  in  New  Jersey,     By  Henry  S.  Cooley.     50  cents. 
XI-XII.  Causes  of  the  Maryland  Revolution  of  1689.    By  F.  E.  Spaeks.    50  cents. 

FIFTEENTH  SERIES.— 1897.— $3-5o. 
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SIXTEENTH  SERIES.— 1898.— $3.50. 
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VI.  Anti-Slavery  Leaders  of  North  Carolina,  By  J.  S.  Bassett.  50  cents.  1 
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SEVENTEENTH  SERIES.— 1899.— $3.50. 

I-II-III.  History   of   State   Banking   in    Maryland.     By   A.    C.    Bbtan.     $1.00. 
IV-V.  The  Know-Nothing  Party  in  Maryland.    By  L.  F.  Schmbckbbieb.    75  cents 

VI.  The  Labadist  Colony  in  Maryland.    By  B.  B.  James.     50  cents. 
VII-VIII.  History  of  Slavery  In  North  Carolina.    By  J.  S.  Bassett.    75  cents. 
IX-X-XI,  Development  of  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio  Canal.     By  G.  W.  Wajid.     75  cents. 
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EIGHTEENTH  SERIES.— 1900.— $3.50. 

I-IV.  studies  In  State  Taxation,    Edited  by  J.  H.  Hollandeb.    Paper,  $1.00 ;  cloth,  $1.25. 
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VIII-IX.  The  Church  and  Popular  Education.     By  H.  B.  Adams.     50  cents. 
X-XII,  Beligious  Ereedom  in  Virginia:  The  Baptists.    By  W.  T.  Teom.     75  cents. 

NINETEENTH  SERIES.— 1901.— $3.50. 

Z-III.  America  In  the  Pacific  and  the  Far  East.    By  J.  M.  Callahan.    75  cents. 

IV-V.  state  Activities  in  Relation  to  Labor.    By  W.  F.  Willodghby.     50  cents. 

VI-VII.  History  of  Suffrage  in  Virginia.     By  J.  A.  C.  Chandleb.     50  cents, 

VIII-IX.  The  Maryland  Constitution  of  1864.     By  W.  S.  Myees.     50  cents. 

X.  Life  of  Commissary  James  Blair.     By  D.  E.  Motley.     25  cents. 

XI-XII.  Gov.  Hicks  of  Maryland  and  the  Civil  "War.    By  G.  L.  Radcliffb.    50  cents. 

TWENTIETH    SERIES.— 1902.— $3.50. 

r.  Western  Maryland  in  the  Revolution.     By  B.  C.  Steinee.     30  cents. 

II-III.  state  Banks  since  the  National  Bank  Act.     By  G.  B.  Baenbtt.     50  cents. 

IV.  Early  History  of  Internal  Improvements  in  Alabama.     By  W.  E.  Mabtin.     80  cents. 
•V-VI.  Trust  Companies  in  the  United  States.     By  Geokgb  Catob. 

VII-VIII.  The  Maryland  Constitution  of  1851.     By  J.  W.  Haeey.     50  cents. 

IX-X.  Political  Activities  of  Philip  Freneau.     By  S.  B.  Foeman.     50  cents. 

XI.-XII,  Continental  Opinion  on  a  Middle  European  Tariff  Union.    By  G.  M.  Fise.    30  eta. 

TWENTY-FIRST  SERIES.— 1903.— $3.50. 

*I-II.  The  "Wabash   Trade  Route.     By   E.   J.   Benton. 

III-IV.  Internal  Improvements  in  North  Carolina.     By  C.   C.   Weavee.     50  cents. 

V.  History  of  Japanese  Paper  Currency.     By  M.  Takaki.     30  cents. 

VI-VII.  Economics    and    Politics    in    Maryland,    1720-1750,    and    the    Public    Servioes    of 

Daniel  Dulany  the  Elder.     By  St.  G.  L.   Sioussat.     50  cents. 
♦VIII-IX-X.  Beginnings  of  Maryland,    1631-1639.     By   B.   C.   Steinee. 
XI-XII.  The  English  Statutes  in  Maryland.    By  St.  G.  L.  Sioossat.    50  cents. 

TWENTY-SECOND  SERIES.— 1904.— $3.50. 
I-II.  A  Trial  Bibliography  of  American  Trade-Union  Publications,    50  cents. 
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V.  Switzerland  at  the  Beginning  of  the  Sixteenth  Century.     By  J.  M.  Vincent.     30  cents. 
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IX-X.  The  Foreign  Commerce  of  Japan  since  the  Restoration.     By  Y.  Hattoei.    50  cents. 
XI-XII.  Descriptions  of  Maryland.     By  B.  C.  STBiNiHE.     50  cents. 

TWENTY-THIRD  SERIES.— 1905.— $3.50. 

I-II.  Reconstruction  In  South  Carolina.     By  J.  P.  Holi.is.     50  cents. 

III-IV.  State  Government  in  Maryland,  1777-1781.     By  B.  W.  Bond,  Je.     50  cents. 

V-VI.  Colonial  Administration  under  Lord  Clarendon,  1660-1667.    By  P.  L.  Kayb.     50  cts. 

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IX-X.  The  Napoleonic  Exiles  in  America,  1815-1819.    By  J.  S.  Reeybs.     50  certs. 

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TWENTY-FOURTH  SERIES.— 1906.— $3.50. 

I-II.  Spanish-American  Diplomatic  Relations  before  1898.  By  H.  E.  Flack.  50  cents. 
III-IV.  The  Finances  of  American  Trade  Unions.  By  A.  M.  Sakolski.  75  cents. 
V-VI.  Diplomatic  Negotiations  of  the  United  States  with  Russia.  By  J.  C.  IIildt.  50  cts. 
VII-VIII.  State  Rights  and  Parties  in  North  Carolina,  1776-1831.  By  H.  M.  Wagstaff.  50c. 
IX-X.  National  Labor  Federations  in  the  United  States.  By  William  Kibk.  75  cents. 
XI-XII.  Maryland  During  the  English  Civil  Wars.    Part  I.     By  B.  C.  Stbinbb.     50  cents. 

TWENTY-FIFTH  SERIES.— 1907.— 53.50. 

I.  Internal  Taxation  In  the  Philippines.     By  John  S.  Hoed.     30  cents. 

II-III.  The  Monroe  Mission  to  France,  1794-1796.     By  B.  W.  Bond,  Jr.     50  cents. 

rV-V.  Maryland  During  the  English  Civil  Wars,  Part  II.     By  Beenabd  C.  Steinee.     BOc. 

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VIII-IX-X.  Financial  History  of  Maryland,  1789-1848.     By  Hiioii  S.  Hanna.     75  cents. 

XI-XII.  Apprenticeship  in  American  Trade  Unions.     By  J.  M.  Motley.     50  cents. 

TWENTY-SIXTH  SERIES.— 1908.— $3.50. 
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IV-VI.  Neutral  Rights   and   Obligations  in  the  Anglo-Boer  War.     By   R.   G.    Campbell. 

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IX-X.  A  Study  of  the  Topography  and  Municipal  History  of  Praeneste.     By   R.   V.   D. 

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TWENTY-SEVENTH   SERIES.— 1909.— $3.50. 
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III-IV-V.  The    Development    of    the    English    Law    of    Conspiracy.     By    J.    W.    Bbxaw. 

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VI-VII.  Legislative    and    Judicial    History    of    the    Fifteenth    Amendment.     By    J.    M. 

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TWENTY-EIGHTH  SERIES.— 1910.— $3.50. 

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THIRTY-FIRST    SERIES.— 1913.— $3.50. 

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I.  The  Land  System  in  Maryland,  1720-1765.    By  Clarence  P.  Gould.     75  cents;  cloth, 

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xii 


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The  Diplomacy  of  the 
War  of  1812 

By 
FRANK  A.  UPDYKE,  Ph.D. 

IRA  ALLEN  EASTMAN  PROFESSOR  OP  POLITICAL  SCIENCE  IN 
DARTMOUTH  COLLEGE 

504  Pages.     Cloth,  $2.50 

This  volume  contains  the  lectures  delivered  at  the  Johns 
Hopkins  University  in  19 14  on  the  Albert  Shaw  Foundation. 
The  author  carefully  analyzes  the  diplomatic  correspondence 
in  regard  to  neutral  rights  and  the  impressment  of  seamen 
which  preceded  the  War  of  18 12.  The  protests  against  inter- 
ference with  neutral  trade  made  by  Presidents  Jefferson  and 
Madison  have  an  unexpectedly  familiar  sound  today.  Then, 
as  now,  the  United  States  was  the  principal  neutral  power  in 
a  war  which  involved  all  Europe.  The  causes  of  the  War  of 
1812  are  clearly  set  forth.  The  treaty  of  Ghent,  the  hun- 
dredth anniversary  of  which  has  recently  been  celebrated,  is 
the  central  theme  of  the  latter  half  of  the  volume.  The  ne- 
gotiations leading  to  the  signing  of  that  treaty  are  clearly  de- 
scribed. The  terms  of  the  treaty  are  examined  as  well  as  the 
questions  in  dispute  which  were  omitted,  and  which  contin- 
ued to  disturb  the  relations  of  the  two  countries  for  many 
years.  In  the  concluding  chapter  each  of  these  disputed 
questions  is  traced  to  its  final  solution. 

THE  JOHNS  HOPKINS  PRESS 

Baltimore  Maryland 


-      4  j*^ 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


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